
^^■'i'^JU^ r r; 




-i»w_-. . 'V-iire* 



MAXIMS 



AKD 



INSTRUCTIONS 



FOR 



THE BOILER ROOM 



This Work is Fraternally inscribed 
to W, R, Hawkins, R. K Hawkins 
and F, P. Hawkins, 



Maxims and Instructions 



FOR 



The Boiler Room. 



USEFUL TO 



Engineers, Firemen & Mechanics, 

RELATING TO STEAM GENERATORS, PUMPS 
APPLIANCES, STEAM HEATING, PRAC- 
TICAL PLUMBING, ETC. 




By N. HAWKINS, M. E., 

Honorary ]V£ember National Association of Stationary Engineers. 

Editorial Writer, Author of Hand Book of Calculations 

FOR Engineers and Firemen, Etc., Etc. 

Comprising Instructions and Suggestions on the Construc- 
tion, Setting, Controi, and Management oe Various 
Forms of Steam Boilers; on the Theory and Prac- 
TiCAi, Operation of the Steam Pump; Steam 
Heating ; Practical Plumbing ; also 
Rules for the Safety Valve, 
Strength of Boilers, Capac- 
ity OF Pumps, Etc. 



Xt^EO. AUDEIv S. CO., F»ub>Hst»ers, 

63 FIFTH AVE.. Cor. 13TH St., 
New York. 



18345 







TWO COPIES RECEIVEO- 



<^V' 



Copyrighted by 
Thko. Audki. & Co. 



Cr.d COPV, 
10S3. 






PREFACE. 



The chief apology for the preparation and issue of 
these Maxims and Instructions, for the use of Steam, 
users, Engineers and Firemen, is the more than hind 
reception of Calculations. 

But there are other reasons. There is the wholesome 
desire to henefit the class, with whom, in one way and 
another, the author has heen associated nearly two score 
years. 

The plan followed in this worh will he the same as 
that so generally approved in Calculations ; the com- 
pleted volume will he a worh of reference and instruct 
tion upon those worhs set forth in the title page. As a 
worh of reference the worh will he especially helpful 
through comhined Index and Definition Tables to he in- 
serted at the close of the hooh. By the use of these the 
meaning of every machine, material and performance 
of the hoiler room can he easily found and the "points" 
of instruction made use of. 

This worh heing issued in parts, now in manuscript, 
and capahle of change or e^nlargement, the editor will 
he thanhful for helpful suggestions from his profession- 
al brethren, before it is put into permanent booh form. 

J^. HAWKIJ^S. 







'^^^/?G£snPRt^^^'' 



Robert fuu 



INTRODUCTION, 



Each successive generation of engineers lias added cer- 
tain unwritten experiences to the general stock of knowledge 
relating to steam production, which have been communicated 
to their successors, and by them added to^ in their turn, 
it is within the province of this book to put in form for 
reference, these unwritten laws of conduct, which have passed 
into MAXIMS among engineers and firemen — a maxim being 
an undisputed truth, expressed in the shorti-st terms. 

Soliloquy op an Engineer. "Standing in tlie boiler room and 
looking around me, there are many things I ought to know a good deal 
about. Coal ! What is its quality ? How much is used in ten hours or 
twenty- four hours ? Is the grate under the boiler the best for an eco 
nomical consumption of fuel ? Can I, by a change in method of firing 
save any coal ? The safety valve. Do I know at what pressure it will 
blow off ? Can I calculate the safety-valve so as to be certain the weight 
is placed right ? Do I know how to calculate the area of the grate, the 
heating surface of the tubes and shell ? Do I know the construction of 
the steam gaugt >« ad vacuum-gauge ? Am I certain the steam-gauge is in- 
dicating correctly, neither over nor under the pressure of the steam ? 
What do I know about the setting of boilers ? About the size and quality 
of fire bricks? About the combination of carbon and hydrogen of the fuel 
with the oxygen of the atmosphere ? About oxygen, hydrogen and nitro- 
gen? About the laws of combustion ? About radiation and heating sur- 
faces ? 

"Do I know what are good non-conductors for covering of pipes, and 
why they are good ? Do I know how many gallons of water are in the 
boiler ? 

" What do I know about water and steam ? How many gallons of water 
are evaporated in twenty-four hours ? What do I know about iron and 
steel, boiler evaporation, horse-power of engines, boiler appendages and 
fittings ? 

" Can I calculate the area and capacity of the engine cylinder ? Can I 
take an indicator diagram and read it ? Can I set the eccentric ? Can I 
set valves ? Do I understand the construction of the thermometer, and 
know something about the pressure of the atmosphere, temperature and 
the best means for ventilation? Can I use a pyrometer and a salinometer? 



IKTEODUCTIOiq". 



" AVitliout goiii^ outside of my boiler and engine room I find these 
tilings are all about me — air, water, steam, heat, gases, motion, speed, 
strokes and revolutions, areas and capacities — how much do I know about 
these ? 

" How much can be learned from one lump of coal ? What was it, 
where did it come from ? When it is burned, what gases will it give off ? 

" And so with water. What is the composition of water ? What are 
the effects of heat upon it ? How does it circulate ? AVhat is the 
temperature of boiling water ? What are the temperatures under differ- 
ent pressures ? What is latent heat ? What is expansive force ? " 

These are the questioning thoughts which fill, while on duty, 
more or less vividly, the minds of both engineers and fire- 
men, and it is the purpose of this volume to answer the en- 
quiries, as far as may be without attempting too much ; for 
the perfect knowledge of the operations carried on within 
the boiler-room involves an acquaintance with many branches 
of science. In matters relating to steam engineering, it must 
be remembered that ^' art is long and time is short/' 

The utility of such a book as this is intended to be, no one 
will question, and he who would not be a ^^ hewer of wood 
and a drawer of water " to the more intelligent and well- 
informed mechanic, must possesses to a considerable extent 
the principles and rules embraced in this book ; and more 
especially, if he would be master of his profession and re- 
puted as one whose skill and decisions can be implicitly relied 
upon. 

The author in the preparation of the work has had two 
objects constantly in view ; first to cause the student to become 
familiarly acquainted with the leading principles of his 
profession as they are mentioned, and secondly, to furnish 
him with as much advice and information as possible within 
the reasonable limits of the work. 

While it is a fact that some of the matter contained in this 
work is very simple, and all of it intended to be very plain, 
it yet remains true that the most expert living engineer was 
at one time ignorant of the least of the facts and principles 



IlftBODUCTlOK. 



here given, and at no time in his active career can he 
ever get beyond the necessity of knowing fche primary steps 
by which he first achieved his sncoess. 

' The following taken from the editorial columns of the lead- 
ing mechanical journal of the country contain the same sug- 
gestive ideas already indicated in the *' soliloquy of an engi- 
neer : '" 

** There is amongst engineers in this country a quiet educational move- 
ment going on in matters relating to facts and principles underlying their 
work that is likely to have an important influence on industrial affairs. 
This educational movement is noticeable in all classes of workmen, but 
amongst none more than among the men in charge of the power plants 
of the country. It is fortunate that this is so, for progress once begun 
in such matters is never likely to stop. 

•' Engineers comprise various grades from the chief engineer of some 
large establishment, who is usually an accomplished mechanic, carrying 
along grave responsibilities, to the mere stopper and starter, who is en- 
gineer by courtesy only, and whose place is likelyto be soon filled by quite 
another man, so far as qualifications are concerned. Men ignorant of 
everything except the mere mechanical details of their work will soon 
have no place. 

* ' Scarcely a week passes that several questions are not asked by en 
gineers, either of which could be made the subject of a lengthy article. 
This is of interest in that it shows that engineers, are not at the present 
time behind in the way of seeking information. Out of about a thousand 
questions that went into print, considerable more than half w^ere asked by 
stationary engineers. These questions embrace many things in the way 
of steam engineering, steam engine management, construction, etc." 

The old meaning of the word lever was '^ a lifter " and 
this book is intended to be to its attentive student, a real 
lever to advance him in his life work ; it is also to be used like 
a ladder, which is to be ascended step by step, the lower 
rounds of which, are as important as the highesto 

It is moreover, the earnest wish of the editor that when 
some, perchance may have '' climbed up '' by the means of this, 
his work, they may in their turn serve as lifters to advance 
others, and by that means the benefits of the work widely 
extended. 



MATERIALS, 



The things with which the engineer has to deal in 
that place where steam is to be produced as an 
industrial age?it, are 

/. The Steam Generator, 
2. Air. 

J. Fuel. 

^. Water. 

5. Steam Appliances. 
Starting with these points which form a part of 
every steam plant, however lim.it ed, however vast, 
the subject can easily be enlarged ttntil it embraces a 
thousand varied divisions extending throttgh all time 
and into every portio7i of the civilized world. 

It is within the scope of this work to so present the 
subjects specified, that the student may classify and 
arrange the inatter into truly scientific order. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



13 



MATERIALS. 

In entering the steam department^ where he is to be employ- 
ed, the eye of the beginner is greeted with the sight of coal, 
water, oil, etc., and he is told of invisible materials, such as 
air, steam and gases ; it is the proper manipulation of these 
seen and unseen material products as well as the machines, 
that is to become his life task. In aiding to the proper 
accomplishment of the yet untried problems nothing can be 
more useful than to know something of the nature and 
history of the different forms of matter entering into the 
business of steam production. Let us begin with 

Coal. 

The source of all the power in the steam engine is stored 
up in coal in the form of heat. 

And this heat becomes effective by burning it, that is, by its 
combustion. 

Coal consists of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen 
and ash. These elements exist in all coals but in varying 
quantities. 

These are the common proportions of the best scrts : 





ANTHRACITE 


BITUMINOUS 


WOOD 

(average) 

DRY. 


Peat 


PEAT 

i 
WATEE 


Carbon . . . 


90i 


81 


50 


59 


44 


Hydrogen . 


3* 


5i 


6 


6 


4i 


Nitrogen . . 


Oi 


1 


1 


li 


1 


Sulphur . „ . 


00 


IJ 





p 


(25) 


Oxygen. . . 


2i 


6i 


41 


30 


n\ 


Ash 


4i 


4f 


2 


31 


3 




1^0 


100 


100 


100 


100 



In burning coal or other fuel atmospheric air must be in- 
troduced before it will burn; the air furnishes the oxygeuj 
without which combustion cannot take pl^cCo 



14 Maxims and Instructions, 

MATERIALS. 

It is found that in burning one lb. of coal one hundred and 
fifty cubic feet of air must be used and in every day practice it 
is necessary to supply twice as much ; this is supplied to the 
coal partly through the grate bars, partly through the perforated 
doors, and the different devices for applying it already heated 
to the furnace. 

WOOD. 

Wood as a combustible, is divisible into two classes : 1st, the 
hard, compact and comparatively heavy, such as oak, ash, 
beech, elm. 2d, the light colored soft, and comparatively light 
woods as pine, birch, poplar. 

Wood when cut down contains nearly half moisture and 
when kept in a dry place, for several years even, retains from 15 
to 20 per cent, of it. 

The steam producing power of wood by tests has been found 
to be but little over half that of coal and the more water in it 
the less its heating power. In order to obtain the most heating 
power from wood it is the practice in some works in Europe 
where fuel is costly, to dry the wood fuel thoroughly, even 
using stoves for the purpose, before using it. This *' hint '* 
may serve a good purpose on occasion. 

The composition of wood reduced to its elementary condition 
will be found in the table with coal. 

PEAT. 

Peat is the organic matter or vegetable soil of bogs, swamps 
and marshes — decayed mosses, coarse grasses, etc. The peat 
next the surface, less advanced in decomposition, is light, 
spongy and fibrous, of a yellow or light reddish-brown color ; 
lower down it is more compact, of a darker-brown color, and in 
the lowest strata it is of a blackish brown, or almost a black 
color, of a pitchy or unctuous feel. 

Peat in its natural condition generally contains from 75 to 80 
per cent, of water. It sometimes amounts to 85 or 90 per cent, 
in which case the peat is of the consistency of mire. 

When wet peat is milled or ground so that the fibre is 
broken, crushed or cut, the contraction in drying is much 



Maxims and Instructions, 



MATERIALS. 

increased by this treatment ; and the peat becomes denser, and 
is better consolidated than when it is dried as it is cut from the 
bog; peat so prepared is known as condenf^ed peat, and the 
degree of condensation varies according to the natural heaviness 
of the peat. So effectively is peat consolidated and condensed 
by the simple process of breaking the fibres whilst wet. that no 
merely mechanical force of compression is equal to il. 

In the table the elements of peat are presented in two condi- 
tions. One perfectly dried into a powder before analyzing and 
the other with 25 per cent, of moisture. 

The value of peat as a fuel of the future is an interesting 
problem in view of the numerous inroads made upon our great 
natural coal fields. 

TAN. 

Tan, or oak bark, after having been used in the process of 
tanning is burned as fuel. The spent tan consists of the fibrous 
portion of the bark. Five parts of oak bark produce four parts 
of dry tan. 

STEAW. 
Two compositions of straw (as a fuel) is as follows : 
Water, - - - - 14 per cent. 
Combustible matter, - - 79 '* 
Ash, - - . - ^ a 

COKE, CHAEOOAL, PEAT OHAECOAL. 
These are similar substances produced by like processes from 
coal, wood, and peat and they vary in their steam-producing 
power according to the value of the fuels from which they are 
produced. The method by which they are made is termed 
carbonization, which means that all the gases are removed by 
heat in closed vessels or heaps, leaving only the carbon and the 
more solid parts like ashes, 

LIQUID AND GAS FUELS. 
Under this head come petroleum and coal gas, which are ob- 
tained in great variety and varying value from coal and coal 
oil. The heating power of these fuels stands in the front rank, 
as will be seen by the table annexed. 



1 6 Maxims and Instructions, 

MATERIALS. 

There are kinds of fuel other than coal such as wood, coke, 
sawdust, tan bark, peat and petroleum oil and the refuse from 
oil. These are all burned with atmospheric air of which the 
oxygen comUnes with the combustible part of the fuel while 
the nitrogen passes off into the chimney as waste. 

The combustible parts of coal are carbon, hydrogen and 
sulphur and the unburnable parts are nitrogen, water and the 
incombustible solid matters such as ashes and cinder. In the 
operation of firing under a boiler the three first elements are 
totally consumed and form heat ; the nitrogen, and water in 
the form of steam, escapes to the flue, and the ashes and cinders 
fall under the grates. 

The anthracite coal retain their shape while burning, though 
if too rapidly heated they fall to pieces. The flame is 
generally short, of a blue color. The coal is ignited with dif- 
ficulty ; it yields an intense local or concentrated heat ; and 
the combustion generally becomes extinct while yet a consider- 
able quantity of the fuel remains on the grate. 

The dry or free burning bituminous coals are rather lighter 
than the anthracites, and they soon and easily arrive at the 
burning temperature. They swell considerably in coking, and 
thus is facilitated the access of air and the rapid and complete 
combustion of their fixed carbon. 

The method of firing with different sorts of fuel will be 
treated elsewhere. 

AIR. 

The engineer's success in the management of the furnace 
depends quite as much upon his handling the air in the right 
mixtures and proportions as it does in his using the fuel — for 

1. Although invisible to the eye air is as much a material 
sulstance as coal or stone. If there were an opening into the 
interior of the earth which would permit the air to descend its 
density would increase in the same manner as it diminishes in 
the opposite direction. At the depth of about 34 miles it 
would be as dense as water, and at the depth of 48 miles it 
would be as dense as quicksilver ; and at the depth of about 50 
miles as dense as gold. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



MATERIALS. 

2. Air is not only a substance, but an impenetrable tody ; as 
for example : if \Ye make a hollow cylinder, smooth and closed 
at the bottom, and put a stopper or solid piston to it, no force 
will enable us to bring it into contact with the bottom of the 
cylinder, unless we permit the air within it to escape. 

3. Air is a fluid which is proved by the great movability of 
its parts, flowing in all directions in great hurricanes and. in 
gentle breezes ; and. also by the fact that a pressure or blow is 
propagated through all parts and affects all parts alike. 

4. It is also an elastic fluid, thus when an inflated bladder is 
compressed it immediately restores itself to its former situation; 
indeed, since air when compressed restores itself or tends to 
restore itself, with the same force as that with which it is com- 
pressed, it is a perfectly elastic body. 

5. The weight of a column of air one square foot at the bottom 
is found to be 2156 lbs. or very nearly lo lbs. to the square 
inch, hence it is common to state the pressure of the atmosphere 
as equal to 15 lbs. to the square inch. 

It follows from these flve points that the engineer must con^ 
nder air as a positive, although unseen, factor with which Ms 
ivorh is to he accomplished. 

What air is composed of is a very important item of 
knowledge. It is made of a mixture of two invisible gases 
whose minute and inconceivably small atoms are mingled 
together like a parcel of marbles and bullets — that is while 
together they do not lose any of their distinctive qualities. 
The two gases are called nitrogen and oxygen, and of 100 parts 
or volumes of air 79 parts are of nitrogen and 21 parts of 
oxygen ; but by weight (for the oxygen is the heaviest) 77 of 
nitrogen and 23 of oxygen. 

The oxygen is the part that furnishes the heat by uniting 
with the coal — indeed without it the process of combustion 
would be impossible : of the two gases the oxygen is burned in 
the furnace, more or less imperfectly, and the nitrogen is wasted. 



jS Maxims and Instructions, 



MATERIALS. 



Table of Evaporatiok. 

In order to arrive at the money value of tlie various f ie!a 
heretofore described a method of composition has been arrived 
at which gives very accurately their comparative worth. The 
rule is too advanced for this elementary work, but the follow- 
ing results are plainly to be understood, and will be found to be 
of value. 



Lbs. of FneL 


Temperature 


of water ^ 


Coal, 


14.62 lbs, 


. of water. 


Coke, - • - 


- 14.02 


« 


Wood, 


8.07 


€% 


Wood, 25 <fo of water, • 


- 6.05 


€€ 


Wood Charcoal, 


- 13.13 


9i 


Peat, perfectly dry, 


- 10.30 


4$ 


Peat with 25 ^ moisture. 


7.41 


€t 


Peat, Charcoal (dry) - 


• 12.76 


9t 


Tan, dry, - 


6.31 


«< 


Tan, 30 i moisture, - 


. 4.44 


€4 


Petroleum, - 


20.33 


4€ 



€4 



The way to read this table is as follows : *' One lb. coal has 
an average evaporative capacity of 14. j^^ lbs. of water, '* or 

One lb. of peat with one-quarter moisture will evaporate, if 
all the heat is utilized 7.xVff Ihs. of water. 

In practice bnt little over half of these results are attained, 
but for a matter of comparison of the value of one kind of fuel 
with another the figures are of great value ; a boiler burning 
wood or tan needs to be much larger than on© burning 
petroleum oil. 



Maxims and htstructions. 



^9 



FIRE IRONS. 

The making or production of steam requires the handling of 
the fuel, more or less, until its destruction is complete, leaving 
nothing behind in the boiler room, except ashes and clinkers. 
The principal tools used by the attendant, to do the task most 
efficiently, are : 1. The scoop shovel. 2. The poker. 3. The 
slice bar. 4. The barrow. 




Fig. 1. 
Fig. 1. represents the regular scoop shovel commonly called 
*'a coal shovel/' but among railroad men and others, known as 
a locomotive or charging scoop. The cut also represents a 
regular shovel. Both these are necessary for the ordinanry 
business of the boilor room. 





c^ 




Fig. 2. 
In cut 2 are represented a furnace poker, A, and two forms of 
the slice bar. They are all made by blacksmiths from round 
iron, some 7 or 8 feet long and only vary in the form of the 
end. The regular slice bar is shown in 0, Fig. 2; and ''the 
dart " a special form used largely on locomotives is shown 
inB. 



20 



Maxims and htstrucHons. 



FIRE IRONS. 

The dexterous nse of these important implements can merely 
be indicated in print, as it is part of the trade which is 
imparted by oral instruction. One " point '' in making the 
slice bar may be mentioned to advantage— the lower side should 
be perfectly flat so that it may slide on the surface of the grate 
bars as it is forced beneath the fire— and the upper portion of 
the edge should be in the shape of a half wedge, so as to crowd 
upwards the ashes and clinkers while the lower portion slides 
along. 

There is sometimes used in connection with these tools an 
appliance called a Lazy Bae. This is very useful for the fire- 
man when cleaning a bituminous or other coal fire : it saves 
both time and fuel as well as steam. It is a hook shaped iron, 
ingeniously attached above the furnace door, so that it supports 
the principal part of the weight of the heavy slice bar or poker 
when being used in cleaning out the fires 




Fig. 3. 

Equally necessary to the work of the boiler-room is the 
barrow shown in cut. There are many styles of the vehicle 
denominated respectively— the railroad barrow, the ore and 
stone barrow, the dirt barrow, etc.; but- the one represented in 
fig. 3 is the regular coal barrow. 

In conveying coal to ^'batteries'' of boilers, in gas houses 
and other suitable situations the portable car and iron track 
are nearly always used instead of the barrow. In feeding fur- 
naces with saw dust and shavings large iron screw conveyors 
are frequently employed, as well as blowers— In the hand- 
ling of the immense quantities of fuel required, the real ingenu- 
ity of the engineer in charge has ample opportunity for exercise. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



21 



FIRE IRONS. 

There are also used in nearly all boiler rooms HOES made of 
heavy plate iron, with handles similar to those shown in the cuts 
representing the slice bar and poker. A set of two to four 
hoes of various sizes is a very convenient 
addition to the list of fire tools ; a light gar- 
den hoe for handling ashes is not to be omit- 
ted as a labor saving tool. 



m 



HANDY TOOLS. 

Besides the foregoing devices for conduct- 
ing the preliminary process of the steam 
generation, the attendant should have close 
at hand a servicable hai^d hammee, a 
SLEDGE for breaking coal and similar work, 
and A SCREW wrekch and also a light 
LADDER for use about the boiler and shafting. 

In addition to these there are various 
other things almost essential for the proper 
doing of the work of the boiler room, — Fire 
AND Water Pails, Laj^terns, Rubber 
Hose, etc., which every wise steam user will 
provide of the best quality and which the 
engineer will as carefully keep in their ap- 
pointed places ready for instant service. 



Fig. 4. 



To these familiar tools can be added eiles, lace cutters, 

BOILER-FLUE BRUSHES, STOCK and DIES, PIPE-TONGS, SCREW 

JACKS, YiSES, etc., all of which when used with skill and upon 
right occasion pay a large return on their cost* 



^2 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE TOOL BOX. 

The complex operations of the boilor room, its emergencies 
and var3ring conditions demand the use of many implements 
which might at first thought he out of place. The following 
illustrations exhibit some of these conveniences. 





Fig. 5. 
Fig. 5, letter A, show the common form of compasses which 
are made from 3 to 8 inches long. Letter B, illustrates the 
common steel compass dividers, which are made from 5 to 24 
inches in length. 




Fig. 6. 
In this illustration, A exhibits double, inside and outside 
Calipers; B, adjustable outside Calipers; C, inside; and D 
outside, plain caliapers. 



^/ , V J" ■■^^yi^ 



^ , M~ W ^ X J '^/T^ 



FIRING OF 




STEAM BOILERS. 



24 Maxims and Instructions. 



THE FIRING OF STEAM BOILERS. 



The care and management of a steam boiler comprises three 
things : 

1. The preparation, which includes the partial filling with 
water and the kindling of the fire. 

2. The running, embracing the feeding, firing and extinb- 
tion or banking of the fire. 

3. The cleaning out after it has been worked for some time. 

To do this to the best advantage, alike to owner and em- 
ployee, can be learned only by practice under the tuition of an 
experienced person. The '^ trick " or unwritten science of the 
duties of the skillful firemen must be communicated to the be- 
ginner, by already experienced engineers or firemen or from 
experts who have made the matter a special study. Let it he 
understood that tJie art of firing cannot he self taught. 

The importance of this knowledge is illustrated by a remark- 
able difference shown in competitive tests in Germany between 
trained and untrained firemen in the matter of securing a high 
evaporation per pound of coal. The trained men succeeded in 
evaporating 11 lbs. of water, as against 6.89 lbs. which was the 
best that the untrained men could obtain. 

It is certain that a poor fireman is a dear man at any price, 
and that a competent one maybe cheap at twice the wages now 
paid. Suppose, for instance, a man who burns three tons a 
day is paid $2.00 for such service, and that in so doing he is 
wasting as little as 10 per cent. If the coal cost 14.50 per ton 
the loss will be $1.35 per day, or what is equivalent to paying 
a man $3.35 per day who can save this amount. 

The late Chief Engineer of Philadelphia Water Works 
effected an annual saving to the city of something like $50,000 ; 
and recently the weekly consumption of a well established 
woolen mill was reduced from 71 to 49 tons, a clear saving of 
22 tons ty careful attention to this point. 



Maxims and Instruction^, ^o 

THE FIRING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

It 13 apparent that any rules or directions which, might be 
given for one system would not apply equally to other forms of 
boilers and this may be the principal reason that the art is one 
so largely of personal instruction. Some rules and hints will, 
however be given to the beginner, which may prove of advant- 
age in fitting the fireman for an advanced position ; or to 
assure him permanence in his present one. 

No two toilers alihe. It is said that no two boilers, even 
though they seemed to be exactly alike — absolute duplicates — 
ever did the same, or equal service. Every steam boiler, like 
every steam engine, has an individuality of its own, with which 
the person in charge has to become acquainted, in order to 
obtain the best results from it. 

The unlikeness in the required care of steam engines which 
seem to be exactly the same, is still more marked in the 
different skill and experience demanded in handling locomo- 
tive, marine, stationery, portable boilers and other forms of 
steam generators. 

Befoee LiGHTiiq"G THE PIRE Under the boiler in the morning, 
the engineer or fireman should make a rapid yet diligent 
examination of various things, viz. : 1. He should make sure 
that the boiler has the right quantity of water in it — that it has 
not run out during the night or been tampered with by some 
outside party ; very many boilers have been ruined by neglect- 
ing this first simple precaution. 2. He should see that the 
safety valve is in working order ; this is done by lifting by rod, 
or hand the valve which holds the weight upon the safety 
valve rod. 3. He should open the upper gauge-cock to let out 
the air from the boiler while the steam is forming. 4. He 
should examine the condition of the grate-bars and see that no 
clinkers and but few ashes are left from last night's firing. 5. 
And finally, after seeing that everything is in good shape, pro- 
ceed to build the fire as follows : 

Ok Lighting the Fire. When quite certain that every- 
thing is in good condition, put a good armful of shavings 
or fine wood upon the grate, then upon this some larger 
pieces of wood to form a bed of coals, and then a little of 



26 



Maxims and Instructions, 



the fuel that is to be used while running. Sometimes it 
is better to light before putting on the regular fuel, but 
in any case give it plenty of air. Close the fire doors, 
and open the ash pit, giving the chimney full draught 

When the fire is well ignited, throw in some of the regular 
fuel, and when this is burning add more, a little at a time, and 
continue until the fire is in its normal condition, taking care, 
however, not to let it burn too freely for fear of injury to the 
sheets by a too rapid heating. 

It is usually more convenient to light the fire through the 
fire door, but where this cannot be done, a torch may be used 
beneath the grates, or even a light fire of shavings may be 
kindled in the ash pit. 

At the time of lighting, all the draughts should be wide open. 

As soon as the steam is seen to issue from the open uppei 
gauge-cock it is proof that the air is out. It should now bt 
closed and the steam gauge will soon indicate a rise in tern, 
perature. 

When the steam begins to rise it should next be observed 
that : 1. All the cocks and valves are in working order — that 
they move easily, 2. That all the joints and packings are 
tight. 

In the following two cuts are exhibited in an impressive way 
the difference between proper and improper firing. 




Fig. 1. 
Fig. 1 represents the proper mode of keeping an even depth 
of coal on the grate bars ; the result of which will be, a 
■aniform generation of gas throughout the charge, and a 
uniform temperature in the flues. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



27 



THE FIRING OF STEAM BOILERS. 




Fi^. 3. 
rig. 2 represents a very frequent method of feeding fur- 
naces : charging the front half as high, and as near the door, 
as possible, leaving the bridge end comparatively bare. The 
result necessarily is that more air obtains access through the 
uncovered bars than is required, which causes imperfect com- 
bustion and consequent waste. 

The duties of the fireman in the routine of the day may thus 
be summed up : 

1st. — Begin to cliarge the furnace at the Iridge end and 
Tceep firing to within a few inches of the dead plate. 

2d. — Never allow the fire to te so low before a fresh charge is 
thrown in, that there shall not he at least three to five inches 
deep of clean, incondescent fuel on the tars, and equally spread 
over the whole, 

3d. — Keep the tars constantly and equally covered, par- 
ticularly at the sides and the bridge end, where the fuel burns 
away most rapidly. 

4th. — If* the fuel burns unequally or into holes, it must he 
leveled^ and the vacant spaces must he filled, 

5fch. — The large coals must be broken into pieces not bigger 
than a man^s fist. 

6th. — When the ash pit is shallow, it must be the more fre- 
quently cleared out. A body of hot cinders, beneath them, 
overheats and burns the bars. 

7th. — The fire must not be hurried too much, but should be 
left to increase in intensity gradually. When fired properly 
the fuel is consumed in the best possible way, no more being 
burned than is needed for producing a sufficient quantity of 
steam and keeping the steam pressure even. 



28 Maxims and Instructions, 



DIEECTIONS FOR FIEIKG WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

FiEiKG BoiLEES N'EWLT SET, etc. — Boilers newly set should 
be heated up very slowly indeed, and the fires should not be 
lighted under the boilers for at least two weeks after setting, if 
it is possible to wait this length of time. This two weeks en- 
ables all parts of the mason work to set gradually and harden 
naturally ; the walls will be much more likely to remain per- 
fect, than when fires are lighted while the mortar is yet green. 

When fire is started under a new boiler the first time, it 
should be a very small one, and no attempt should be made to 
do more than moderately warn, all parts of the brick work. A 
slow fire should be kept up for twenty-four hours, and on the 
second day it may be slightly increased. Three full days should 
elapse before the boiler is allowed to make any steam at all. 

When the pressure rises, it should not be allowed to go above 
four or five pounds and the safety valve weight should be taken 
off to prevent any possibility of an increase. Steam should be 
allowed to go through all the pipes attached for steam, and 
blow through the engine before any attempt is made to get pres- 
sure on them. The object of all these precautions and this 
care is to prevent injury by sudden expansion, which, may 
cause great damage. 

FiEiKQ WITH Coke. 

Coke, in order to be completely consumed, needs a greater 
volume of air per pound of fuel than coal. Theoretically it 
needs from 9 to 10 lbs. of air to burn a pound of coal, and 13 
to 13 lbs. of air to burn a pound of coke. 

Coke, therefore, requires a more energetic draft, which is in- 
creased by the fact that it can only burn economically in a 
thick bed. It is also necessary to take into account the size of 
the pieces. 

The ratio between the heating and grate surface should be 
less with coke than with coal, that is to say, the grate should 
be larger. 

The difference amounts to about 33 per cent. In fact. 



Maxims and Instructions, 2^ 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

ftbont 9 J lbs, of coke should be burned per hour on each square 
foot of grate area, while at least 14^ lbs. of coal can be burned 
ut^on the same space. 

The high initial temperature which is developed by the com- 
bustion of coke requires conducting walls. Therefore the fur- 
nace should not be entirely surrounded by masonry ; and the 
plates of the boiler should form at least the crown of the fire- 
box. In externally fired boilers, the furnace should 'le located 
beneath and not in front of the boiler. Internal fire boxes 
may be used, but the greatest care should be exercised to avoid 
any incrustation of the plates, and in order that this may be 
done, only the simplest forms of boilers should be used. With 
coke it is not essential that long passages should be provided 
for the passage of the products of combustion, since the greater 
part of the heat developed is transmitted to the sheets in the 
neighborhood of the furnace. 

Since coke contains very little hydrogen, the quick flaming 
combustion which characterizes coal *»j not produced, but the fire 
is more even and regular. And, finally, the combustion of coal 
is distinguished by the fact that in the earlier phases there is 
usually an insufficiency of air, while in the last there is no 
excess. 

The advantage of coke over raw soft coal as a fuel is that 
otherwise useless slack can be made available by admixture in 
its manufacture, and especially that it can be perfectly and 
smokelessly burnt without the need of skilled labor. And we 
cannot doubt that the public demand for a clear and healthy 
atmosphere will finally result in the almost complete substitu- 
tion of coke fuel for soft 1-ump coal. 



Sixteen Steam Boileks in a large mill in Massachusetts 
of 54 and 60 inches in diameter are fired as follows : 

There are three separate batteries ; one of five boilers, one 
of twelve and one of three. Each boiler is fired every five 
minutes. There are two firemen for the battery of twelve and 



Maxims and Inslrucitons, 



FIEING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

one for eacb of the others. A gong in each fire-room is operated 
by electricity in connection with a clock. The duty of the fire- 
man is this, that when the gong strikes he commences at one 
end Ox his fire-room and fires as rapidly as possible, opening one- 
naif of each furnace door. The coal is thrown only on one- 
half of the grate space as he rapidly fires each boiler, the other 
half is covered at the next sounding of the gong. The old 
style of straight grate is used. The fires are kept six inches 
thick or a little thicker. K"o slicing is done. It is, of course, 
to be understood that the firemen arrange the quantity of coal 
fired according to the apparent necessity of the case. Bitum- 
inous coal is used, and it is broken into small pieces so as to 
distribute well. Accurate account is kept of the quantity of 
coal used and the engines are frequently indicated. 

Tw^EXTT Horse Power. — An old engineer says the way 
he handled his boiler of this size, buining 800 lbs. of screen- 
ings per day, is as follows : 

My method is to run as heavy a fire as my fire box will allow 
to be kept under the bridge wall, and not to disturb it more 
than once in a ten hours run, then clean out with care aad as 
speedily as possible, dress light and let it come up and get 
ready to bank. In banking I make sure to have an even fire, 
as deep as the bridge wall will allow. Then I shut my 
dampers and let it lie. In the morning I open and govern by 
the dampers. I do not touch my fire until 3.30 or 4 o'clock in 
the afternoon, and then proceed to clean as before. 

Firing w^ith Coal Tar. — The question of firing retort 
benches with tar instead of coke has engaged the attention 
of gas managers for many years, and various modes have 
been adopted for its management. The chief difficulty has 
been in getting a constant flow of tar into the fuinace, 
uninterrupted by stoppages caused by the regulating cock 
or other appliance not answering its purpose and b> the 
carbonizing of the tar in the delivery pipe, thus choking it 
up and rendering it uncertain in action. To obviate these 



Maxims and Instructions. j?i 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

difficulties vario-us plans have been resorted to, but the best 
means for overcoming them are thus described ; fix the tar 
supply tank as near the furnace to be supplied as convenient, 
and one foot higher than the tar-mjector inlet A cock is 
screwed into the side of the tank, to which is attached a piece 
of composition pipe f -inch in diameter, ten inches long. To 
this a "2 -inch iron service pipe is connected, the other end of 
which is joined to the injector. By these means it is found 
that at the ordinary temperature of the tar well (cold weather 
excepted) loar gallons of tai pei hour are delivered in a con- 
stant steam into the furnace. If more tar is requixed, the piece 
of f -inch tube must be shortened, or a larger tube substituted, 
and if less tar is required it must be lengthened. The risk of 
stoppage in the nozzle of the injector is overcome by the steam 
jet, which scatters the tar into spray and thus keeps everything 
clear. Trouble being occasioned by the retorts becoming too 
hot, in which case, on shutting off the flow of tar for a while, 
the tar in the pipe carbonized and caused a stoppage, a remov- 
able plug injector is fitted and ground in like the plug of a 
cock, having inlets on either side for tar and steam. This plug 
injector can be removed, the tar stopped in two seconds and 
refixed in a similar time. The shell of the injector is firmly 
bolted to the top part of the door frame. The door is swung 
horizontally, having a rack in the form of a quadrant, by which 
it is regulated to any required height, and to admit any 
quantity of air. 

FiRii^TG WITH Straw. — The operation of burning straw un- 
der a boiler consists in the fuel being fed into the furnace only 
as fast as needed. When the straw is handled right, it makes 
a beautiful and very hot flame and no smoke is seen com 
ing from the stack. The whole secret of getting the best 
results from this fuel is to feed it into the furnace in a gradual 
stream as fast as consumed. When this is done complete com- 
bustion is the result. A little hole may be drilled in the smoke- 
box door, so that the color of the fire can be seen and fire is 
handled accordingly. When the smoke comes from the stack 
the color of the flame is that of a good gas jet. Bj feeding a 



^2 Maxims and Instructions. 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

little faster the color becomes darker and a little smoke comes 
from tlie stack ; feeding a little faster tlie flame gets quite dark 
and? the smoke blacker; faster still, the flame Ig extinguished, 
clouds of black smoke come from the stack, and the pressure is 
falling rapidly. 

FiRiKG WITH OiLc— Great interest is now manifested in the 
use of oil as fuel. There are various devices used for this pur- 
pose, most of them depending upon a steam jet to atomize the 
oil, or a system of retorts to first heat the oil and convert it 
into gas, before being burned. 

Another method in successful operation is the use of com- 
pressed air for atomizing the oil — air being the element, nature 
provides for the complete combustion of all matter. The 
cleanliness of the latter system and its comparative freedom 
from any odor of oil or gas and its perfect combustion, all re- 
commend it. Among the advantages claimed for the use of oil 
over coal are 1, uniform heat ; 2, constant pressure of steam ; 3, 
no ashes, clinkers, soot or smoke, and consequently clean flues ; 
4, uniform distribution of heat and therefore less strain upon 
the plates. 

FiRiKG OK AN OcEAK Steamer like the '' Umhria" i\iQ 
men come on in gangs of eighteen stokers or firemen and 
twelve coal passers, and the '^ watch "' lasts four hours. The 
'' Umhria " has 72 furnaces, which require nearly 350 tons of 
coal a day, at a cost of almost 120,000 per voyage. One hun- 
dred and four men are employed to man the furnaces, and 
they have enough to do. They include the chief engineer, his 
three assistants, and ninety stokers and coal passers. 

The stoker comes to work wearing only a thin undershirt, 
light trousers, and wooden shoes. On the '* Umbria ^' each 
stoker tends four furnaces. He first rakes open the furnaces, 
tosses in the coal, and then cleans the fire, that is, pries the 
coal apart with a heavy iron bar, in order that the fire may 
burn freely. He rushes from one furnace to another, spending 
perhaps two or three minutes at each. Then he dashes to the 
air pipe, takes his turn at cooling off, and waits for another 



Maxims ancr Instructions. Jj 

FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

call to his furnace, which comes speedily. When the '^ watch ** 
is over, the men shuffle off, dripping with sweat from head to 
foot, through long, cold galleries to the forecastle, where they 
turn in for eight hours. Four hours of scorching and eight 
hours sleep make up the routine of a fireman's life on a 
voyage. 

The temperature is ordinarily 120°, but sometimes reaches 
160°; and the work then is terribly hard. The space between 
the furnaces is so narrow that when the men throw in coal they 
must take care when they swing back their shovels, lest they 
throw their arms on the furnace back of them . 

In a recent trial of a government steamer the men worked 
willingly in a temperature of 175°, which, however, rose to 212° 
or the heat of boiling water. The shifts of four hours were 
reduced to two hours each, but after sixteen men had been 
prostrated, the whole force of thirty-six men refused to submit 
to the heat any longer and the trial was abandoned. 

There is no place on ocean or land, where more suffering is 

inflicted and endured by human beings than in these h 

holes, quite projDcrly so called ; it is to be hoped that the efforts 
towards reform in the matter will not cease until completely 
successful. 

Firing of Sawdust akd Shavings. — '^The air was forced 
into the furnace with the planer shavings at a velocity of about 
12 feet per second, and at an average temperature of about 60 
degrees Fahrenheit. The shavings were forced through a pipe 
12 inches in diameter, above grate, into the combustion chamber. 
The pipe had a blast gate to regulate the air in order to main- 
tain a pressure in the furnace, which a little more than bal- 
anced the ascending gases in the funnel or chimney. All 
the fireman had to do was to keep the furnace doors closed and 
watch the water in the gauges of his boiler. The combustion 
in the furnace was complete, as no smoke was visible. The 
shavings were forced into the combustion chamber in a spray- 
like manner, and were caught into a blaze the moment they 
entered. The oxygen of the air so forced into the furnace 
along with the shavings gave full support to the combustion. 



34 



Maxims and Instructions, 




FIRING WITH VARIOUS FUELS. 

The amount of shavings consumed by being thus forced into 
the furnace was about fifty per cent, less than the amount 
consumed, when the fireman had to throw them in with his 
shovel." 

It is an important ^' point " 
when burning shavings or saw- 
dust with a blast, to keep the 
blower going without cessation, 
as there have been disastrous 
accidents caused by the flames 
going up the shutes, thence 
through the small dust tubes 
leading from the bin to the 
various machines. 

In firing ^' shavings^' by hand, it is necessary to bum 
them from the top as otherwise the fire and heat are only pro- 
duced when all the shavings are charred. To do this, provide a 
a half inch gas pipe, to be used as a light poker ; light the 
shaving fire, and when nearly burned take the half -inch pipe 
and divide the burning shavings through the middle, banking 

them against the side- walls as 
shown in 1^'ig. 9. Kow feed a 
pile of new shavings into the 
centre on the clean grate bars, 
as shown in Fig. 10, and close 
the furnace doors. The 
shavings will begin to burn 
from above, lighted from the 
two side fires, the air will pass 
Fig. 10. through the bars into the shav- 

ings, where it will be heated and unite with the gas, making 
the combustion perfect, generating heat, and no smoke, and the 
fire will last much longer and require not half the labor m 
itoking. 








Maxims and Instructions. 



35 



FIRING A LOCOMOTIVE. 



^.^ 




This figure exhibits the interior of the furnace of a locomo- 
tive engine, which varies greatly from the furnace of either a 
land or marine boiler. This difference is largely caused by the 
method of applying the draught for the air supply; in the 
locomotive this is effected by conducting the exhaust steam 
through pipes from the cylinders to the smoke-box and allow- 
ing ib to escape up the smoke stack from apertures called 
exhaust nozzles; the velocity of the steam produces a vacuum, 
by which the products of combustion are drawn into the smoke- 
box with great power and forced out of the smoke stack into 
the open air. 

To prevent the too quick passage of the gases into the flues 
an appliance called a fire brick arch has been adopted and has 
proved very efficient. In order to be self supporting it is built 
in the form of an arch, supported by the two sides of the fire 
box which serve for abutments. The arch has been sometimes 
replaced by a hollow riveted arrangement called a water table 
designed to increase the fire surface of the boiler. 



36 Maxims and Instructions, 

FIRING A LOCOMOTIVE. 

Firing a Locomotive. — T^o rules can possibly be given for 
firing a locomotive which would not be more misleading than 
helpful. This is owing to the great variations which exist in 
the circumstances of the use of the machine, as well as the 
differences which exist in the various types of the locomotive. 

These variations may be alluded to, but not wholly described. 
1. They consist of the sorts of fuel used in different sections of 
the country and frequently on different ends of the same rail- 
road; hard coal, soft coal, and wood all require different man- 
agement in the furnace. 2. The speed and weight of the train, 
the varying number of cars and frequency of stopping places, 
all influence the duties of the fireman and tax his skill. 3. The 
temperature of the air, whether cold or warm, dry weather or 
rain, and night time and day time each taxes the skill of the 
fireman. 

Hence, to be an experienced fireman in one section of the 
country and under certain circumstances does not warrant the 
assurance of success under other conditions and in another loca- 
tion. The subject requires constant study and operation 
among not only " new men '' but those longest in the service. 

More than in any other case to be recalled, must the fireman 
of a locomotive depend upon the personal instruction of the 
engineer in charge of the locomotive. 

FiEiKG WITH Tan Bark. — Tan bark can be burned upoB 
common grates and in the ordinary furnace by a mixture of 
bituminous screenings. One shovel full of screenings to four or 
five of bark will produce a more economical result than the tan 
bark separate, as the coal gives body to the fire and forms a hot 
clinker bed upon which the bark may rest without falling 
through the spaces in the grate bars, and with the coal, more 
air can be introduced to the furnace. 

The above relates to common furnaces, but special fire boxes 
have been recently put into operation, fed by power appli- 
ances, which work admirably. The '* point '^ principally to be 
noted as to the efficacy of tan bark as a fuel, is to the effect, 
that like peat, the drier it is the more valuable is it as a f ueL 



Maxims and Instructions, jy 

POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

The Process of Boiling. Let it be remembered that the 
boiling spoken of so often is really caused by the formation of 
the steam particles, and that without the boiling there can be 
but a very slight quantity of steam produced. 

While pure water boils at 212°, if it is saturated with common 
salt, it boils only on attaining 224°, alum boils at 220°, sal 
ammoniac at 236°, acetate of soda at 256°, pure nitric acid boils 
at 248°, and pure sulphuric acid at 620°. 

Ok the First Application of Heat to water small bubbles 
soon begin to form and rise to the surface; these consist of air, 
which all water contains dissolved in it. When it reaches the 
boiling point the bubbles that rise in it are principally steam. 

In the case of a new plant, or where the boiler has some 
time been idle it is frequently advisable to build a smaF fire in 
the base of the chimney before starting the boiler fires Thit, 
will serve to heat the chimney and drive out any moist ire that 
may have collected in the interior and will frequently prevent 
the disagreeable smoking that often follows the building of a fire 
in the furnace. 

Always bear in mind that the steam in the boilers and 
engines is pressing outward on the walls that confine it in every 
direction; and that the enormous forces you are handling, 
warn you to be careful. 

When starting fires close the gauge cocks and safety valve as 
soon as steam begins to form. 

Go SLOW. It is necessary to start all new boilers very slowly. 
The change from hot to cold is an immense one in its effects on 
the contraction and expansion of the boiler, the change of 
dimension by expansion is a force of the greatest magnitude 
and cannot be over-estimated. Leaks which start in boilers 
that were well made and perfectly tight can be attributed to 
this cause. Something must give if fires are driven on the 
start, and this entails trouble and expense that there is no occa- 
sion for. This custom applies to engines and steam pipes as 
well as to boilers. No one of any experience will open a stop 
yalve and let a full head of live steam into a cold line of pipe 
or a cold engine. 



3^ Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

To preserve the grate« bars from excessive heat, when first 
firing a boiler, it is well to sprinkle a thin layer of coal upon 
the grates before putting in the shavings and wood for starting 
the fire. This practice tends greatly to prolong the life of the 
grate-bars. 

The fuel shonld generally be dry when usedu Hard coal, 
however, may be dampened a little to good advantage, as it is 
then less liable to crowd and will burn more freely. 

Air, high temperature, and sufficient time are the principal 
points in firing a steam boiler. 

In first firing up make sure that the throttle valve is closed, 
in order that the steam first formed may not pass over into 
the engine cylinder and fill it with water of condensation. If 
the throttle valve leak steam it should be repaired at the first 
opportunity. 

Keep all heating surfaces free from soot and ashes. 

Eadiant rays go in all directions, yet they act in the most 
efficient manner when striking a surface exactly at a right 
angle to their line of movement. The sides of a fire-box are 
for that reason not as efficient as the surface over the fire, 
and a flat surface over the fire is the best that can be had, so 
far as that fact alone is considered. 

When combustion is completed in a furnace then the balance 
of the boiler beyond the bridge wall can be utilized for taking 
up heat from the gases. The most of this heat has to be 
absorbed by actual contact ; thus by the tubes the gases are 
finely divided, allowing that necessary contact. 

Combustion should be completed on the grates for the 
reason that it can be effected there at the highest temperature. 
When this is accomplished, the fullest benefit is had from 
radiant heat striking the bottom of the boiler — it is just there 
that the tulk of the work is done. 

There must necessarily be some waste of heat by its passing 
up the chimney to maintain draft. It is well to have th« 



Maxims and Instructions, ^p 

POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

3, as they enter the chimney, as much below 600 deg. F. 
(down to near the temperature of the steam) as you can and 
yet maintain perfect combustion. 

Every steam engine has certain well-defined sounds in action 
which we call noises, for want of a better term, and it is upon 
them and their continuance that an engineer depends for 
assurance that all is going well. 

This remark also applies to the steam boiler, which has, so 
to speak, a language of its own, varying in volume from 
the slight whisper which announces a leaking joint to the 
thunder burst which terribly follows a destructive explosion. 
The hoarse note of the safety valve is none the less significant 
because common. 

The dampers and doors to the furnace and ash pit should 
always be closed after the fire has been drawn, in order to keep 
the heat of the boiler as long as possible. 

But the damper must never be entirely closed while there i? 
fire on the grate as explosions dangerous in their character 
might occur in the furnace from the accumulated gases. 

Flues or tubes should often be swept, as soot, in addition to 
its liability to becoming charged with a corroding acid, is a 
non-conductor of heat, and the short time spent in cleaning 
them will be repaid by the saving of labor in keeping up 
steam. In an establishment where they used but half a ton of 
bituminous coal per day, the time of raising steam in the 
morning was fifty per cent, longer when the tubes were 
unswept for one week than when they were swept three times 
a week. 

Smoke will not be seen if combustion is perfect. Good 
firing will abate most of the smoke. 

Coals, at the highest furnace temperature, radiate much 
heat, whereas gases ignited at and beyond the bridge wall 
radiate comparatively little heat — it is a law in nature for a 
solid body highly heated to radiate heat to another solid body. 

Dry Ais'D Cleak is the condition in which the boiler shouM 
be kept, i, e., dry outside and clean bothinside and out. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



POINTS RELATING TO FIRING 

To haul his furnace fire and open the safety vahe before 
seeking his own safety or the preservation of property, is the 
duty of the fireman in the event of fire threatening to burn a 
whole establishment. 

Many, now prominent, engineers have made their first repu- 
tation by remembering to do this at a critical time. 

Whek watee is pumped into the boiler or allowed to run 
in, some opening must be given for the escape of the contained 
air, usually the most convenient way is to open the upper 
guage cock after the fire has been lighted until cloudy steam 
begins to escape. 

In a snmmaiy of experiments made in England, it is stated 
that : — 

** A moderately thick and hot fire with rapid draft uniformly 
gave the best results/* 

"' Combustion of black smoke by additional air was a loss/* 

*' In all experiments the highest result was always obtamed 
when all the air was introduced through the fire bars." 

** Difference in mode of firing only may produce a difference 
of 13 per cent.'* (in economy). 

The thickness of the fire under the boiler should be in 
accordance with the quality and size of the fuel. For hard 
coal the fire should be as thin as possible, from three to six 
inches deep ; when soft coal is used, the fire should be thicker, 
from five to eight inches deep. 

If it is required to bum coal dust without any change of 
grates, wetting the coal is of advantage ; not that it increases 
its heat power, but because it keeps ib from falling tlirough 
the grates or going up the chimney. The same is true of 
burning shavings ; by watering they are held in the furnace, 
and the firing is done more easily and with better results. 

Stirkikg the Fire should be avoided as much as possible ; 
firing should be performed evenly and regularly, a little at a 
time, as it causes waste fuel to disturb the combustion and by 
making the fuel fall through the grates into the ash pit ; 
hence do not ** clean** fires oftener then absolutely necessary. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



POINTS RELATING TO FIRING. 

The slower the velocity of the gases before they pass the 
damper, the more nearly can they be brought down to the 
temperature of the steam, hence with a high chimney and 
strong draft the dampers should be kept nearly closed, if 
the boiler capacity will permit it. 

No arbitrary rule can be laid down for keeping fires thick or 
thin. Under some conditions a thin fire is the best, under 
others a thick fire gives best economy. This rule, however, 
governs either case : you must have so active a fire as to give 
strong radiant heat. 

One of the highest aims of an expert fireman should be to 
keep the largest possible portion of his grate area in a condition 
to give great radiant heat the largest possible part of a day- 
using anthracite coal by firing light, quick and often, not 
covering all of the incandescent coals. Using bituminous 
coal, hand firing, by coking it very near the dead plate, 
allowing some air to go through openings in the door, and by 
pushing toward the bridge wall only live coals — when slicing, 
to open the door only far enough to work the bar ; this is dono 
with great skill in some cases. 

Regulating the Deaft. — This should be done so as to 
admit tlie exact quantity of air into the furnace, neither too 
much nor too little. It should be remembered that fuel can- 
not be burned without air and if too much air is admitted it 
cools the furnace and checks combustion. It is a good plan to 
decrease the draft when firing or cleaning out, by partly 
closing the damper or shutting off the air usually admitted 
from below the grates ; this is to have just draught enough to 
pieTent the flame from rushing out when the door is opened. 

By luminous fiame is generally meant that which burns witK 
a bright yellow to white color. All flame under a boiler is not 
luminous, sometimes the whole or a part of it will be red or 
blue. The more luminous the flame, that is to say, the nearer 
white it is, the better combustion. 



4^ Maxims and Instructions, 

RULES RELATING TO FIRING. 
To DETERMII^E THE TEMPERATURE OF A FUE:N"ACE FIRE the 

following table is of use. The colors are to be observed and the 
corresponding degrees of heat will be approximately as follows: 

Faint red 960° F. 

Bright red 1,300° F. 

Cherry red 1,600° F. 

Dull orange 2,000° F. 

Bright orange 2,100° F. 

White heat 2,400° F. 

Brilliant white heat 2,700° F. 

That is to say, when the furnace is at a '^ white heat " the 
heat equals 2,400 degrees Fahrenheit, etc. 

Another method of finding the furnace heat is by submitting 
a small portion of a particular metal to the heat. 

Tin melts at 442° F. 

Lead '' " 617° F. 

Zinc *' '' .700° F. nearly. 

Antimony melts at 810 to 1,150° F. 

Silver melts at 1,832 to 1,873° F. 

Cast Iron melts at 2,000° F. nearly. 

Steel " •' 2,500° F. '' 

Wrought Iron melts at 2, 700° F. " 

Hammered Iron melts at 2,900° F. '* 

FOAMING m BOILERS. 

The causes are — dirty water, trying to evaporate more water 
than the size and construction of the boiler is intended for, 
taking the steam too low down, insufficient steam room, im- 
perfect construction of boiler, too small a steam pipe and some- 
times it is produced by carrying the water line too high. 

Too little attention is paid to boilers with regard to their 
evaporating power. W^here the boiler is large enough for the 
water to circulate, and there is surface enough to give off the 
steam, foaming never occurs. 

As the particles of the steam have to escape to the surface of 
the water in the boiler, unless that is in proportion to the 
amount of steam to be generated, it will be delivered with such 
violence that the water will be mixed with it, and cause 
foaming. 



Maxims and Instructions, ^^ 

FOAMING IN BOILERS. 

For violent ebollition a plate hung over the hole where the 
steam enters the dome from the boiler, is a good thing, and 
prevents a rush of water by breaking it, when the throttle is 
opened suddenly. 

In cases of very violent foaming it is imperative to check 
the draft and cover the fires. 

The steam pipe may be carried through the flange six inches 
into the dome — which will prevent the water from entering the 
pipes by following the sides of the dome as it does. 

A similar case of priming of the boilers of the IT. S. Steamer 
Galena was stopped by removing some of the tubes under the 
smoke stack, and substituting bolts. 

Clean water, plenty of surface, plenty of steam room, large 
steam pipes, boilers large enough to generate steam without 
forcing the fires, are all that "is required to prevent foaming. 

A high pressure insures tranquillity at the surface, and the 
steam itself being more dense it comes away in a more compact 
form, and the ebullition at the surface is no greater than at a 
lower pressure. When a boiler foams it is best usually to close 
the throttle to check the flow, and that keeps up the pressure 
and lessens the sudden delivery. 

Too many flues in a boiler obstruct the passage of the steam 
from the lower part of the boiler on its way to the surface — 
this is a fault in construction. 

An engineer who had been troubled with priming, finally 
removed 36 of the tubes in the centre of the boiler, so as to 
centralize the heating effect of the fire, thereby increasing the 
rapidity of ebullition at the centre, while reducing it at the 
circumference. The effect of the change was very marked. 
The priming disappeared afc once. The water line became 
nearly constant, the extreme variation being reduced to two 
inches. 



44 Maxims and Instructions, 

A CHAPTER OF DON'TS. 

Which is another way of repeating what has already been said, 

1. DotV^t empty the boiler when the brick work is hot. 

2. Don't pump cold water into a hot boiler. 

3. Don^t allow filth of any kind to accumulate around the 

boiler or boiler room. 

4. Uofl't leave your shovel or any other tool out of its 

appointed place when not in use. 

5. Don^t fail to keep all the bright work about the boiler 

neat and " shiny." 

6. Don't forget that negligence causes great loss and 

danger. 

7. Don't fail to be alert and ready-minded and ready- 

headed about the boiler and furnace. 

8. Don't read newspapers when on duty. 

9. Don't fire up too quickly. 

10. Don't let any water or dampness come on the outside of 

your boiler. 

11. Don't l^t Siny dampness get into the boiler and pipe 

coverings. 

12. Z)o^^< fail to see that you have plenty of water in the 

boiler in the morning. 

13. Don't fail to keep the water at the same height in the 

boiler all day. 

14. Don't let any one talk to you when firing. 

15. Don't allow water to remain on the floor about the 

boiler. 

16. Don't fail to blow off steam once or twice per day- 

according as the water is more or less pure. 

17. Don't fail to close the blow-off cock, when blowing off, 

when the water in the boiler has sunk to one and a 
half inches. 

18. Dont fail, while cleaning the boiler, to examine and 

clean all cocks, valves and pipes and look to all joints 
and packings. 



Mixxims and Instructions. 4s 

A CHAPTER OF DONTS. 

J 9. lyouH commence cleaning the boiler until it has had 

time to cool. 

20. DonH forget daily to see that the safety valve moves 

freely and is tight. 

21. Don^t fail to clean the boiler inside frequently and 

carefully. 

22. Don*t fail to notice that the steam gauge is in order. 

23. Don't fail to keep an eye out for leaks and have them 

repaired immediately, no matter how small. 

24. Don^t fail to empty the boiler every week o^ two and 

re- fill it with fresh water. 

25. DonH let any air into the furnace, except what goes 

through the grate bars, or the smoke burners, so called, 
by which the air is highly heated. 

26. Don't increase the load on the safety valve beyond the 

pressure allowed by the inspector, 

27. Don^t fail to open the doors of the furnace and start the 

pump when the pressure is increased beyond the 
amount allowed, hut 

28. Don^t fail to draw the fires when there is danger from 

the water having fallen too low. 

29. Don^t fail to check the fire — if too hot to draw, do it 

with fresh coal, damp ashes, clinkers or soil ; and 

30. Don't fail to open the doors of the furnace and close 

the ash pit doors at the time the fire is checked — and 

31. Don't decrease the steam pressure by feeding in water 

or suddenly blowing off steam, and 

32. Don't touch the safety valve, even if it be opened 

or closed, and 

33. Don't change the feed apparatus if it is working, or the 

throttle- valve be open ; let them both remain as they 
are for a short time, and 

34. Do n't fail to change them very cautiously and slowly 

when you close them, and 

d6. Don't fail to be very cool and brave while resolute in 
gbserving these last seven '' Dent's.'' 



Maxims and Instructions. 



A CHAPTER OF DONTS. 

36. Don^t fail to keep yourself neat and tidy. 

37. Don^t fail to be polite as well as neat and brave. 

38. I>on'f fail to keep the tubes clear and free from soot 

and ashes. 

39. DonH let too many asbes gather in the ashpit. 

40. I>on^t disturb the fire when it is burning good nor stir 

it up too often. 

41. DonH be afraid to get instruction from books and 

engineering papers. 

43. JDon^t fail to make an honest self-examination as to 
points upon which you may be ignorant, and really 
need to know in order to properly attend to your duties. 

43. JDon^t allow too much smoke to issue from the top of 

the chimney if the cause lies within your power to pre- 
vent it. 

44. DonH think that after working at firing and its kindred 

duties for a year or two that the whole subject of 
engineering has been learned. 

45. Don^t forget that one of the best helps in getting for- 

ward is the possession of a vigorous and well balanced 
mind and body — this covers temperance and kindred vir- 
tues and a willingness to acquire and impart knowledge. 

46. Don^t forget to have your steam gauge tested at least 

once in three months. 

47. DonH use a wire or metallic rod as a handle to a swab 

in cleaning the glass tube of a water gauge for the glass 
may suddenly fiy to pieces when in use within a short 
time afterwards. 

48. JDonH forget that steam pumps require as much atten- 

tion as a steam engine. 

49. Dofi^t run a steam pump piston, unless in an emergency, 

at a speed exceeding 80 to 100 feet per minute. 
60. Don^t do anything without a good reason for it about 
the engine or boiler, bat when you are obliged to d« 
anything, do it thoroughly and as quickly as possible* 



Maxims and Instructions, ^y 

A CHAPTER OF DONT'S. 

51. Do7iH forget to sprinkle a thin layer of coal on the 

grates before lighting the shavings and wood in the 
morning. This practice preserves the grate bars. 

52. DonH don't take the cap off a bearing and remove the 

upper brass simply to see if things are working well ; if 
there is any trouble it will soon give you notice, and, 
besides, you never can replace the brass in exactly its 
former position, so that you may find that the bearing 
will heat soon afterwards, owing to your own uncalled- 
for interference. 

53. Don^t put sulphur on a hot bearing, unless you intend 

to ruin the brasses. 

54. Don't use washed waste that has a harsh feel, as the 

chemicals used in cleansing it have not been thoroughly 
removed. 

55. I>ofl'tf in case of an extensive fire, involving the whole 

business, rush off without drawing the fires, and raising 
and. propping open the safety valve of the boiler. 

56. Dofi't fail to preserve your health, for ^'a sound mind 

in a sound body " is beyond a money valuation. 

57. Don't fail to remember that engineers and firemen are 

in control of the great underlying force of modern civ- 
ilization; hence, to do nothing to lower the dignity of 
the profession. 

58. Don't forget that in the care and management of the 

steam boiler the first thing required is an unceas- 
ing watchfulness —watch-care. 

59. Don't forget that an intemperate, reckless or indiffer- 

ent man has no business in the place of trust of a steam 
boiler attendant. 

60. Don't allow even a day to pass without adding ono or 

more facts to your knowledge of engineering in some 
of its branches. 



^8 Maxims ana Instructions. 



STEAM GENERATORS. 



In the examinations held by duly appointed officers to 
determine the fitness of candidates for receiving an engineer's 
license the principal stress is laid upon the applicant's know- 
ledge of the parts and true proportions of the yarious designs 
of steam boilers, and his experience in managing them. 

In fact, if there were no boilers there would be no examin- 
ations, as the laws are framed, certificates issued and steam 
boiler inspection companies formed to assure the public safety 
in life, limb and property, from the dangers arising from so- 
called mysterious boiler explosions. 

Hence an almost undue proportion t)f engineer's examina- 
tions are devoted to the steam boiler, its management and con- 
struction. But the subject is worthy of the best and most 
thoughtful attention. Every year adds to the number of steam 
boilers in use. \^ith the expanding area and growth of pop- 
ulation, the number of steam plants are multiplied and in 
turn each new steam boiler demands a careful attendant. 

There is this difference between the boiler and the engine. 
When the latter is delivered from the shop and set up, it does 
its work with an almost unvarying uniformity, while the boiler 
is a constant care. It is admitted that the engine has reached 
a much greater state of perfection and does its duty with very 
much more reliability than the boiler. 

Even when vigilant precautions are observed, from the 
moment a steam boiler is constructed until it is finally de- 
stroyed there are numerous insidious agents perpetually at 
work which tend to weaken it. There is nothing from which 
the iron can draw sustenance to replace its losses. The at- 
mosphere without and the air within the boiler, the water as it 



Maxims and Instructions. 49 



STEAM GENEEATOES. 

ca;or3 tbrough the feed-pipe and containing mineral and 
organic substances, steam into which the water is converted, 
the sediment which is precipitated by boiling the water, the 
fire and the sulphurous and other acids of the fuel, are all 
natural enemies of the iron; they sap its strength, not only 
while the boiler is at work and undergoing constant strain, but 
in the morning before fire is started, and at noon, night, Sun- 
days, and other holidays it is preyed upon by these and other 
corroding agents. 

These are the reasons which impress the true engineer with 
a constant solicitude regarding the daily and even momentary 
action of the steam generator. 

Desckiptioi^. 

The Steam Boiler in its simplest form was simply a closed 
-vessel partly filled with water and which was heated by a fire 
box, but as steam plants are divided into two principal parts, 
the engine and the boiler, so the latter is divided again into 
the furnace and boiler, each of which is essential to the other. 
The furnace contains the fuel to be burnt, the boiler contains 
the water to be evaporated. 

There must be a steam space to hold the steam when 
generated ; heating surface to transmit the heat from the 
burning fuel to the water; a chimney or other apparatus 
to cause a draught to the furnace and to carry away the 
products of combustion ; and various fittings for supplying the 
boiler with water, for carrying away the steam when formed 
to the engine in which it is used ; for allowing steam to escape 
into the open air when it forms faster than it can be used ; for 
ascertaining the quantity of water in the boiler, for ascertain- 
ing the pressure of the steam, etc., all of which, together with 
the engine and its appliances is called A steam plant. 

The forms in which steam generators are built are numerous, 
but may be divided into three classes, viz. : stationary, loco- 
motive and marine boilers, which terms designate the uses for 
which they are intended ; in this work we have to deal mainly 
with the first-named, although a description with illustration 
is given of each type or form. 



50 



Maxims and Instructions, 



AN UPRIGHT STEAM BOILER. 

To illustrate the operations of a steam generator, we give the 
details of an appliance, which may be compared to the letter A 
of the alphabet, or the figure 1 of the numerals, so simple 
is it. 

Fig. 11, is an elevation of boiler, fig. 12 a vertical section 
through its axis, and fig. 13 a horizontal section through the 
furnace bars. 




Fig. 11. Fig. 12. 

The type of steam generator here exhibited is what is known 
as a vertical tubular boiler. The outside casing or shell is 
cylindrical in shape, and is composed of iron or steel plates 
riveted together. The top, which is likewise composed of the 
same plates is slightly dome-shaped, except at the center, which 
is away in order to receive the chimney a, which is round in 
shape and formed of thin wrought iron plates. The interior 
is shown in vertical section in fig. 12. It consists of a furnace 
chamber, h, which contains the fire. The furnace is formed 
like the shell of the boiler of wrought iron or steel plates by 
flanging and riveting. The bottom is occupied by the grating, 
on which rests the incandescent fuel. The grating consists of 



Maxims and Instructions. 5/ 

UPRIGHT STEAM BOILERS. 

a number of cast-iron bars, d (fig. 12), and shown in plan in fig. 
13, placed so as to have interstices between them like the grate 
of an ordinary fireplace. The bottom of the furnace is firmly 
secured to the outside shell of the boiler in the manner shown 
in fig. 12. The top covering plate cc, is perforated with a num- 
ber of circular holes of from one and a half to three inches 
diameter, according to the size of the boiler. Into each of 
these holes is fixed a vertical tube made of brass, wrought iron, 
or steel, shown at fff (fig. 12). These tubes pass through 
similar holes, at their top ends in the plate g, which latter is 
firmly riveted to the outside shell of the boiler. The tubes are 
also firmly attached to the two plates, cc^ g. They serve to 
convey the flame, smoke, and hot air from the 
fire to the smoke box, h, and the chimney, a, and 
afc the same time their sides provide ample heating 
surface to allow the heat contained in the products 
of combustion to escape into the water. The fresh 
fuel is thrown on the grating when required 
through the fire door, A (fig. 11). The ashes, 
cinders, etc., fall between the fire bars into the ash pit, B (fig. 
12). The water is contained in the space between the shell of 
the boiler, the furnace chamber, and the tubes. It is kept at 
or about the level, ww (fig. 12), the space above this part being 
reserved for the steam as it rises. The heat, of course, escapes 
into the water, through the sides and top plate of the furnace, 
and through the sides of the tubes. The steam which, as it 
rises from the boiling water, ascends into the space above ww, 
is thence led away by the steam pipe to the engine. Unless 
consumed quickly enough by the engine, the steam would ac- 
cumulate too much within the boiler, and its pressure would 
rise to a dangerous pomt. To provide against this contingency 
the steam is enabled to escape when it rises above a certain 
pressure through the safety valve, which is shown in sketch on 
the top of the boiler in fig. 11. The details of the construction 
of safety valves will be found fully described in another section 
of this work, which is devoted exclusively to the consideration 
of boiler fittings. In the same chapters will be found full de- 
scriptions of the various fittings and accessories of boilers, such 
as the water and pressure gauges, the apparatus for feeding the 
boiler with water, for producing the requisite draught of air to 
maintain the combustion, and also the particulars of the con- 
struction of the boilers themselves and their furnaces. 




52 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

After the first crude forms, such as that used in connection 
with the Baranca and Newcoman engine, and numerous others. 
The steam boiler which came into very general use was th^ 
'plain cylinder holier. An illustration is given of this in 
figures 14 and 15. 

It consists of a cylinder A, formed of iron plate with hemis- 
pherical ends B.B. set horizontally in brick work C. The 
lower part of this cylinder contains the water, the upper part 
the steam. The furnace D is outside the cylinder, being 
beneath one end ; it consists simply of grate bars e e set in the 
brick work at a convenient distance below the bottom of the 
boiler. 

The sides and front of the furnace are walls of brick work, 
which, being continued upwards support the end of the 
cylinder. The fuel is thrown on the bars through the door 
which is set in the front brick work. The air enters between 




Fig. 14. 

the grate bars from below. The 
portion below the bars is called 
the ash pit. The flame and hot 
gasses, when formed, first strike 
on the bottom of the boiler, and 
are then carried forward by the 
draft, to the so-called bridge wall 
0, which is a projecting piece of 
brick work which contracts the 
area of the flue n and forces all 




Fig. 13. 



Maxims and Instructions. ^^ 

THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

the products of combustion to keep close to the bottom of the 
boiler. 

Thence the gasses pass along the flue n, and return part one 
side of the cylinder in the flue m (fig. 15) and back again by 
the other side flue m to the far end of the boiler, whence they 
escape up the chimney. This latter is provided with a door 
or damper p, which can be closed or opened at will, so as 
to regulate the draught. 

This boiler has been in use for nearly one hundred years, but 
has two great defects. The first is that the area of heating 
surface, that is the parts of the boiler in contact with the 
flames, is too small in proportion to the bulk of the boiler ; the 
second is, that if the water contains solid matter in solution, 
as nearly all the water does to a greater or less extent, this 
matter becomes deposited on the bottom of the boiler just 
where the greatest evaporation takes place. The deposit, 
being a non-conductor, prevents the heat of the fuel from 
reaching the water in sufficient quantities, thus rendering the 
heating surface inefficient ; and further, by preventing the 
heat from escaping to the water, it causes the plates to become 
unduly heated, and quickly burnt out. 

There is another defect belonging to this system of boiler to 
which many engineers attach great importance, viz. : that the 
temperature in each of the three flues n, m, m' is very differ- 
ent, and consequently that the metal of which the shell of the 
boiler is composed expands very unequally in each of the flues, 
and cracks are very likely to take place when the effects of the 
changes of temperature are most felt. It will be noted that 
the flames and gasses in, this eailiest type of steam boiler make 
three turns before reaching the chimney, and as these boilers 
were made frequently as much as 40 feet long it gave the 
extreme length of 120 feet to the heat products. 



54 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

The Corn^ish Boiler is the next form in time and ex- 
cellence. This is illustrated in figures 16 and 17. 

It consists also of a cylindrical shell A, with flat ends as ex- 
hibited in cuts. The furnace, however, instead of being sit- 
uated underneath the front end of the shell, is enclosed in it in 
a second cylinder B, having usually a diameter a little greater 
than half that of the boiler shell. The arrangement of the 
grate and bridge is evident from the diagram. After passing 
the bridge wall the heat products travel along through the in- 
ternal cylinder By till they reach the back end of the boiler ; 
then return to the front again, by the two side flues in, m,,' and 
thence back again to the chimney by the bottom of flue n. 

In this form of boiler the heating surface exceeds that of the 
last described by an amount equal to the area of the internal 
flues, while the internal capacity is diminished by its cubic 
contents ; hence for boilers of equal external dimensions, the 
ratio of heating surface to mass of water to be heated, is greatly 
increased. Boilers of this sort can, however, never be made of 



""^^^=^-^^^^:^ 



B 



^j» 




rv 



n 



Fig. 16. 

as small diameters as the plain 
cylindrical sort, on account of the 
necessity of finding room inside, 
below the water level, for the fur- 
nace and flue. 

The disadvantage, too, of the 

deposits mentioned in the plain 

cylinder is, to a great extent got 

Fig, VI. over in the Cornish boiler, for the 




Maxims and Instructions, 55 

THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

bottom, where the deposit chiefly takes place, is the coolest 
instead of being the hottest part of the heating surface. 

But the disadyantage of unequal expansion also exists in this 
type of boiler, as the internal flue in the Cornish system is the 
hottest portion of the boiler, and consequently undergoes a 
greater lengthways expansion than the flues. The result is to 
bulge out the ends, and when the boiler is out of use, the flue 
returns to its regular size, and thus has a tendency to work 
loose from the ends to which it is riveted and if the ends are 
too rigid to move, a very serious strain comes on the points of 
the flue. 

Even while in use the flue of a Cornish boiler is liable to un- 
dergo great changes in temperature, according to the state of 
the fire ; when this latter is very low, or when fresh fuel has 
been thrown on, the temperature is a minimum and reaches a 
maximum again when the fresh fuel commences to burn 
fiercely. This constant expansion and contraction is found in 
practice to also so weaken the tube that it frequently collapses 
or is pressed together, resulting in great disaster. 

This led to the production and adoption of the — 

Lancashire Boiler, contrived to remedy this inconvenience 
and also to attain a more perfect combustion, the arrange- 
ment of the furnaces of which is shown in fig. 1 9 and fig. 20. 

It will be observed that there are two internal furnaces in- 
stead of one, as in the Cornish type. These furnaces are some- 
times each continued as a separate flue to the other end of the 
boiler as shown in the cuts ; but as a rule they emerge into one 
internal flue. They are supposed to be fired alternately, and 
the smoke and unburned gases issuing from the fresh fuel are 
ignitod in the flue by the hot air proceeding from the other 
furnace, the fuel in which is in a state of incandescence. Thus 
all violent changes in the temperature are avoided, and the 
waste of fuel due to unburned gases is avoided, if the firing is 
properly conducted. 

The disadvantage of the Lancashire boiler is the difficulty of 
finding adequate room for the two furnaces without unduly in- 



56 



Maxims and Instructions. 




Maxims a7td Instrtictions. 



57 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

creasing the diameter of the shell. Low furnaces are extremely 
unfavorable to complete combustion, the comparatively cold 
crown plates, when they are in contact with the water of the 
boiler, extinguishing the flames from the fuel, when they are 
jusfc formed, while the narrow space between the fuel and the 
crown does not admit the proper quantity of air being supplied 
above the fuel to complete the combustion of the gases, as 
they arise. 



On the other hand, though this boiler favors the formation 
of the smoke, it supplies the means of completing the com- 
bustion afterwards, as before ex- _ _ _ ■ 

plained, by means of the hot air ^^^J^J-^^SSY^^S^^'fJ'jA 
from the second furnace. ^ 



Another disadvantage is the 
danger of collapsing the internal 
flue already spoken of ; this is 
remedied by the introduction of 
what are called the galloway tubes, 
illustrated in the cut shown on 
this page, which is a cross section 
of the water tubes shown in Figs. 
18 and 20. 




These tubes not only contribute to strengthen the flues but 
they add to the heating surface and greatly promote the circu- 
lation so important in the water space. 



Note. 



These descriptions and illustrations of the Lancashire boiler 
are of general value, owing to the fact that 7ery many exhaust- 
ive tests and experiments upon steam economy have been 
made and permanently recorded in connection with this form 
of steam generator. 



s^ 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

In the Galloway form of boiler the flue is sustained and 
stiffened by the introduction of numerous conical tubes, 
flanged at the two ends and riveted across the flue. These 
tubes, a sketch of which are given in fig. 18 (a), are in free 
communication with the water of the boiler, and besides acting 
as stiffeners, they also serve to increase the heating surface and 
to promote circulation. 




Fig. 19. Fig. 20. 

The illustration (figs. 18, 19 and 20) give all the principal 
details of a Lancashire boiler fitted with Galloway tubes. Fig. 
18 represents a longitudinal section and figs. 19 and 20 
shows on a large scale an end view of the front of the boiler 
with its fittings and also a transverse section. The arrange- 
ment of the furnaces, flues, and the Galloway tubes is suf- 
ficiently obvious from the drawings. The usual length of these 
boilers is 27 feet, though they are occasionally made as short as 
21 feet. 

The minimum diameter of the furnaces is 33 inches, and in 
order to contain these comfortably the diameter of the boiler 
should not be less than 7 feet. The ends of the boiler are flat, 
and are prevented from bulging outwards by being held in 
place by the furnaces and flues which stay the two ends to- 
gether and also by the so-called gusset stays e, e. In addition 
to the latter the flat ends of the boiler have longitudinal rods 
to tie them together; one of these is shown &t A, A, ilg. 18, 



Maxims and Instructions, j'p 

THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

The steam is collected in the pipe 8, which is perforated all 
along the top so as to admit the steam and exclude the water 
spray which may rise to the surface during ebullition. The 
steam thence passes to the stop valve T outside the boiler and 
thence to the steam pipes to the engines. 

There are two safety valves on top of the boiler on B (fig. 
18 ), being of the dead weight type described hereafter, and the 
other, C, being a so-called low water safety valve. It is attached 
by means of a lever and rod to the float F, which ordinarily 
rests on the surface of the water. When through any neglect, 
the water sinks below its proper level the float sinks also, caus- 
ing the valve to open, thus allowing steam to escape and giving 
an alarm. M is the manhole with its covering plate, which 
admits of access to the interior of the boiler and H is the mud 
hole by which the sediment which accumulates all along the 
bottom is raked out. Below the front end and underneath, the 
pipe and stay valve are shown, by which the boiler can be 
emptied or blown off. 

On the front of the boiler (fig 19) are shown, the pressure 
gauges, the water gauges and the furnace door ; K is the feed 
pipe \ R, R, 2, pipe and cock for blowing off steam. In the 
front of the setting are shown two iron doors by which access 
may be gained to the two lower external flues for cleaning pur- 
poses. 

In the Lancashire boiler it is considered advisable to take 
the products of combustion, after they leave the internal flues, 
along the bottom of the boiler, and then back to the chimney 
by the side. When this plan is adopted the bottom is kept 
hotter than would otherwise be the case, and circulation is 
promoted, which prevents the coldest water from accumulating 
at the bottom. 

The Galloway (or Lancashire"^ boiler is considered the most 
economical boiler used in England, and is being introduced into 
the United States with success. The long traverse of heat 
provided (three turns of about 27 feet each) contributes greatly 
to its efficiency. 



6o Maxims and Instructions. 

THE GROWTH OF THE STEAM BOILER. 

It may be useful to add the following data relating to this 
approved steam generator, being the principal dimensions and 
other data of the boiler shown in fig. 18: 

Steam pressure, 75 lbs. per sq. inch. 

Length, 27 feet. Heating surface : 

Diameter, 7 feet. In furnace and flues 450 sq. feet. 

Weight, total, 15^ tons. In Galloway pipes, 30 ^' 

Shell plates, yV inch. In external flues, 370 '' 

Furnace diameter, 33 inches. 

Furnace Plates, f inch. 850 sq. feet. 

End plates, \ inch. 
Grate area, 33 sq. feet. 

We have thus detailed step by step the improvement of the 
steam boiler to a point where it is necessary to describe at 
length the locomotive, the marine, the horizontal tubular 
and the water tube boilers, which four forms comprehend 
ninety-nine out of one hundred steam generators in use in the 
civilized world at the present time. 



MARINE BOILEES. 

The boilers used on board steamships are of two principal 
types. The older sort used for steam of comparatively low 
temperature, viz. : up to 35 lbs. per square inch, is usually 
made of flat plates stayed together, after the manner of the 
exterior and interior fire boxes of a locomotive boiler. 

Medium high pressure marine boilers, constructed for steam 
of 60 to 150 lbs. per square inch, are circular or oval in cross 
section, and are fitted with round interior furnaces and flues like 
land boilers. There are many variations of marine boilers, 
adapted to suit special circumstances. Fig. 22 shows a front 
elevation and partial sections of a pair of such boilers and fig. 
23 shows one of them in longitudinal vertical section. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE MARINE STEAM BOILER. 




Fig 22. 



6k 




62 Maxims and Instructions. 

THE MARINE STEAM BOILER. 

It will be seen from these drawings that there are three in- 
ternal cylindrical furnaces at each end of these boilers, making 
in all six furnaces per boiler. The firing takes place at both 
ends. The flame and hot gases from each furnace, after pass- 
ing over the bridge wall enter a flat-sided rectangular combus- 
tion chamber and then travel through tubes to the front up- 
take (^. e, the smoke bonnet or breaching), and so on to the 
chimney. 

The sides of the combustion chambers are stayed to each 
other and to the shell plate of the boiler; the tops are 
strengthened in the same manner as the crowns of locomotive 
boilers, and the flat plates of the boiler shell are stayed to- 
gether by means of long bolts, which can be lengthened up by 
means of nuts at their ends. Access is gained to the uptakes 
for purposes of cleaning, repairs of tubes, etc., by means of 
their doors on their fronts just above the furnace doors. The 
steam is collected in the large cylindrical receivers shown above 
each boiler. The material of construction is mild steel. 

The following are the principal dimensions and other 
particulars of one of these boilers: 
Length from front to back 20 feet. 
Diameter of shell, 15 feet 6 inches. 
Length of furnace, 6 feet 10 inches. 
Diameter of furnace, 3 feet 10 inches. 
Length of tubes, 6 feet 9 inches. 
Diameter of tubes, 3^ inches. 
No. of tubes, 516. 
Thickness of shell plates, \\, 
Thickness of tube plates, f . 
Grate area, 12 6^ square feet. 
Heating surface, 401 5 square feet. 
Steam pressure, 80 lbs. per sq. inch. 

Fig. 24 is a sketch of a modern marine boiler, which is only 
fired from one end, and is in consequence much shorter in 
proportion to its diameter than the type illustrated in figs. 22 
and 23. 



Maxims and InstrMctions, 



63 



THE MARINE STEAM BOILER. 

Marine boilers over nine feet in diameter have generally two 
furnaces, those over 13 to 14 feet, three, while the very largest 
boilers used on first-class mail steamers, and which often 
exceed fifteen feet in diameter, have four furnaces. 



In the marine boiler the course 
taken by the products of combus- 
tion is as follows; the coal enters 
through the furnace doors on to 
the fire-bars, the heat and flames 
pass over the fire bridge into the 
flame or combustion chamber, 
thence through the tubes into 
the smoke-box, up the up-take 
and funnel into the air. 



The fittings to a marine boiler 
are — funnel and. air casings, up- 
takes and air casings, smoke Fig. 24. 
boxes and doors, fire doors, bars, 

bridges, and bearers, main steam stop valve, donkey valve, 
safety valves and drain pipes, main and donkey feed check 
valves, blow-off and scum cocks, water gauge glasses on front 
and back of boiler, test water cock for trying density of water, 
steam cock for whistle, and another for winches on deck. 




A fitting, called a blast pipe, is sometimes placed in the 
throat of the funnel. It consists of a wrought iron pipe, hav- 
ing a conical nozzle within the funnel pointing upwards, 
the other end being connected to a cock, which latter is bolted 
on to the steam space or dome of the boiler. It is used for 
increasing the intensity of the draft, the upward current of 
steam forcing the air out of the funnel at a great velocity; and 
the air having to be replaced by a fresh supply through the 
ash-pits and bars of the furnaces, a greater speed of combus- 
tion is obtained than would otherwise be due to simple draft 
alone. 



^4 Maxims and Instriictions^ 

THE MARINE STEAM BOILER. 

Boilers are fitted with dry and wet uptakes, which differ 
from each other as follows: — The dry uptake is wholly outside 
the boiler, and consists of an external casing bolted on to the 
firing end of the boiler, covering the tubes and forming the 
smoke-box, and is fitted with suitable tube doors. A wet up- 
take is carried back from the firing ends of the boiler into its 
steam space, and is wholly surrounded by water and steam. 
The dry uptake seldom requires serious repair; but the wet 
uptake, owing to its exposure to pressure, steam, and water, 
requires constant attention and repair, and is very liable to 
corrosion, being constantly wetted and dried in the neighbor- 
hood of the water-line. The narrow water space between both 
front uptakes is also very liable to become burnt, owing to 
accumulation of salt. The flue boilers of many tugs and ferry 
boats are fitted with wet uptakes. 

A superheater is a vessel usually placed in the uptake, or at 
the base of the funnel of a marine boiler, and so arranged that 
the waste heat from the furnaces shall pass around and through 
it prior to escaping up the chimney. It is used for drying or 
heating the steam from the main boiler before it enters the 
steam pipes to the engine. The simplest form of superheater 
consists of a wrought iron drum filled with tubes. The heat or 
flame passes through the tubes and around the shell of the 
drum, the steam being inside the drum. Superheaters are 
usually fitted with a stop valve in connection with the boiler, 
by means of which it can be shut off; and also one to the steam 
pipe of the engine; arrangements are also usually made for 
mixing the steam or working independently of the superheater. 

A safety valve is also fitted and a guage glass; the latter is to 
show whether the superheater is clear of water, as priming will 
sometimes fill it up. 

The special fittings of the marine boiler will be more partic- 
ularly described hereafter as well as the stays, riveting, 
strength, etc., etc. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



65 



THE MARINE BOILER. 

The nse of the surface condenser in connection with the 
marine boiler was an immense step toward increasing its effi- 
ciency. In 1840 the average pressure used in marine boilers 
was only 7 or 8 lbs. to the square inch, the steam being made 
with the two-flue pattern of boiler, sea water being used for 
feed ; as the steam pressure increased as now to 150 to 200 lbs. 
to the square inch, greater and greater difficulty was experi- 
enced from salt incrustation — in many cases the tubes did not 
last long and frequently gave much trouble, until the intro- 
duction of the surface condenser, which supplied fresh water 
\o the boilers. 




b^/UmA 



Vlaltr from 
CirtulaCuig hunfi 



Fig. 25. 



The Surface Cokdbnsbb. 

The condenser is an oblong or circular box of cast iron fitted 
in one of two ways, either with the tubes horizontal or vertical: 
at each end are fixed the tube plates, generally made of brass, 
and the tubes pass through the plates as well as through a 
supporting plate in the middle of the condenser. Each end 
of the condenser is fitted with doors for the purpose of enabling 
the tube ends to be examined, drawn, or packed, as may be 
necessary. The tube ends are packed in various ways, and 
the tubes are made of brass, so as to resist the action of the 
w^ter. The water is generally sucked through the tubes bj 



66 Maxims and Instructions^, 

TF^ CONDENSER. 

the circulating pump, and the steam is condensed by coming 
in contact with the external surface of the tubes. In some 
cases the water is applied to the external surface, and the 
steam exhausted through the tubes ; but this practice is now 
generally given up in modern surface condensers. The pack- 
ing round the tube ends keeps them quite tight, and in the 
event of a split tube, a wooden plug is put in each end until an 
opportunity offers for drawing it and replacing with a new one. 
The condenser may be made of any convenient shape. It 
sometimes forms part of the casting supporting the cylinders 
of vertical engines ; it is also frequently made cylindrical with 
flat ends, as in fig 25. The ends form the tube plates to which 
the tubes are secured. The tubes are, of course, open at the 
ends, and a space is left between the tube plate and the outer 
covers, shown at each end of the condenser, to allow of the 
circulation of water as shown by the arrows. 

OPERATIOiir OF THE COKDEKSER. 

The cold water, which is forced through by a circulating 
pump, enters at the bottom, and is compelled to pass forward 
through the lower set of tubes by a horizontal dividing plate ; 
it then returns through the upper rows of tubes and passes out 
at the overflow ; the tubes are thus maintained at a low tem- 
perature. 

The tubes are made to pass right through the condensing 
chamber, and so as to have no connection with its internal 
space. The steam is passed into the condenser and there comes 
in contact with the cold external surface of the tube, and is 
condensed, and removed, as before, by the air pump, as may 
be readily seen in the illustration (p. 65). 

The advantages gained by the use of the surface condenser 
are : 1. The feed water is hotter and fresh ; being hotter, it 
saves the fuel that would be used to bring it up to this heat; 
and being fresh, it boils at a lower temperature. 2. Not term- 
ing so m-uch scale inside the boiler, the heat passes through to 
the water more readily ; and as the scum cock is not used so 
freely, all the heat that would have been blown off is saved. 
Its disadvantages are that being fresh water and toj*ming 
no scq-le on the boiler, it causes the boiler to 10^^ 



Maxims and Instructions. 



67 



THE MARINE BOILER. 

is often said that one engineer will get more out of a 



It 



ship than another. In general it will be found that the 
most successful engineer is the man who manages his stokers 
best. It is very difficult on paper to define what is meant. It 
is a thing to be felt or seen, not described. * * * * The 
engineer who really knows his business will give his fires a fair 
chance to get away. He will work his engines up by degrees 
and run a little slowly for the first few moments. 

WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS. 
A popular form of steam boiler in use in the United States 
and Europe is what is called the water tube boiler. This 
term is applied to a class of boiler in which the water is con- 
tained in a series of tubes, of comparatively small diameter, 
which communicate with each other and with a common 




Water Tube Boiler.— Fig. 26. 

steam-chamber. The flames and hot gases circulate between 
the tubes and are usually guided by partitions so as to act 
equally on all portions of the tubes. There are many varieties 
of this type of boiler of which the cut illustrates one : in this 
each tube is secured at either end into a square cast-iron head, 
and each of these heads has two openings, one communicating 
with the tube below and the other with the tube above \ the 



68 Maxims and Instruclzons. 

WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS. 

communication is effected by means of hollow cast-iron caps 
shown at the end of the tubes ; the caps have openings in them 
corresponding with the openings in the tube heads to which 
they are bolted. 

In the best forms of the water tube boilers, it is suspended 
entirely independent of the brick work from wrought iron 
girders resting on iron columns. This avoids any straining of 
the boiler from unequal expansion between it and its enclosing 
walls and permits the brick work to be repaired or removed, if 
necessary, without in any way disturbing the boiler This 
design is shown in Fig. 26. 

The distinguishing difference, which marks the water tube 
boiler from others, consists in the fact that in the form^er the small 
tubes are filled with water instead of the products of combus- 
tions ; hence the comparison, frequently made, between water- 
tube and^re tuhe boilers— the difference has been expressed in 
another way, '' Water-tube vs. shell boilers, ^^ but the principle 
of steam production in both systems remains the same ; the 
heat from the combustible is transferred to the water through 
the medium of iron plates and in both, the furnaces, steam 
appliances, application of the draught, etc., is substantially the 
same. In another important point do the systems agree, i, e., 
in the average number of pounds of water evaporated per lb. 
of combustible ; it is in the thoroughness of construction and 
skillfulness of adaptation to surroundings that produce the 
best results. Water tube or sectional boilers, have been made 
since the days of James Watt, in 1766, in many different forms 
and under various names. Owing, however, to the imperfec- 
tion of manufacture the system, as compared to shell boilers, 
has been a failure until very recently; various patterns of 
water-tube boilers are now in most favorable and satisfactory 
use. The advantages claimed for this form of steam generator 
are as follows : 

1. Safety from disastrous explosions, arising from the 
division of the contents into small portions, and especially 
from details of construction which make it tolerably certain 
that the rupture will be local instead of a general violent ex- 
plosion which liberates at once large masses of steam aiid water. 



Maxims and Instruct ions, 6p 

WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS. 

2. The small diameter of the tubes of "v^hich they are com- 
posed render them much stronger than ordinary boilers. 

3. They can be cheaply built and easily repaired, as duplicate 
pieces can be kept on hand. The various parts of a boiler can 
be transported without great expense, trouble or delay ; the 
form and proportions of a boiler can be suited to any available 
space ; and, again, the power can be increased by simply ad- 
ding more rows of tubes and increasing the grate area. 

4. Their evaporative efficiency can be made equal to that of 
other boilers, and, in fact, for equal proportions of heating and 
grate surfaces, it is often a trifle higher. 

5. Thin heating surface in the furnace, avoiding the thick 
plates necessarily used in ordinary boilers which not only hinder 
the transmission of heat to the water, but admit of overheating, 

6. Joints removed from the fire. The use of lap welded 
water tubes with their joints removed from the fire also avoid 
the unequal expansion of riveted joints consequent upon their 
doable thickness. 

7. Quick steaming. 

8. Accessibility for cleaning. 

9. Ease of handling and erecting. 

10. Economy and speediness of repairs. 

The known disadvantages of these boilers are • 

1. They generally occupy more space and require more 
masonry than ordinary boilers. 

2. On account of the small quantity of water which they 
contain, sudden fluctuations of pressure are caused by any 
irregularities in supplying the feed-water or in handling the 
fires, and the rapid and at times violent generation of steam 
causes it to accumulate in the contracted water-cha^lbers, and 
leads to priming, with a consequent loss of water, and to over- 
heated tubes. 



7^ Maxims and Instructions, 

WATER TUBE STEAM BOILERS. 

3. The horizontal or inclined water tubes which mainly 
compose these boilers, do not afford a ready outlet for the 
steam generated in them. The steam bubbles cannot follow 
their natural tendency and rise directly, but are generally 
obliged by friction to traverse the tube slowly, and at times 
the accumulation of steam at the heated surfaces causes the 
tubes to be split or burned. 

4. The use of water which forms deposits of solid matter still 
further increases the liability to overheating of the tubes. It 
has been claimed by some inventors that the rapid circulation 
of the water through the tubes would prevent any deposit of 
scale or sediment in them, but experience has proved this to be 
a grave error. Others have said that the expansion of the tube 
would detach the scale as fast as it was deposited and prevent 
any dangerous accumulation, but this also has been proved an 
error. Again, the use of cast iron about these boilers has 
frequently been a constant source of trouble from cracks, etc. 



CARE OF WATER TUBE BOILERS. 

The soot and ashes collect on the exterior of the tubes in this 
form of boilers, instead of inside the tubes, as in the tubular, 
and they must be as carefully removed in one case as in the 
other; this can be done by the use of blowing pipe and hose 
through openings left in the brick work ; in using bituminous 
coal the soot should be brushed off when steam is down. 

All the inside and "outside surfaces should be kept clean to 
avoid waste of fuel ; to aid in this service the best forms are 
provided with extra facilities for cleaning. For inspection, 
remove the hand holes at both ends of the tubes, and by hold- 
ing a lamp at one end and looking in at the other the condition 
of the surface can be freely seen. Push the scraper through 
the tube to remove sediment, or if the scale is hard, use tl'o 
chipping scraper made for that purpose. 

Hand holes should be frequently removed and surfaces 
examined, particularly in case of a new boiler. In replacing 



Maxims and Instructions. 7/ 

CAEE OF WATER TUBE BoIlERS. 

hand hole caps, clean the surfaces without scratching or 
bruising, smear with oil and screw up tight. 

The mud drum should be periodically examined and the 
sediment removed ; blow-off cocks and check valves should be 
examined each time the boiler is cleaned ; when surface blow- 
cocks are used they should be often opened for a few minutes 
at a time ; be sure that all openings for air to boiler or flues 
except through the fire, are carefully stopped. 

If a boiler is not required for some time, empty and dry it 
thoroughly. If this is impracticable, fill it quite full of water 
and put in a quantity of washing soda; and external parts 
exposed to dampness should receive a coating of linseed oil. 
Avoid all dampness in 8eatings or coverings and see that no 
water comes in contact with the boiler from any cause. 

Although this form of boiler is not liable to destructive 
explosion, the same care «hould be exercised to avoid possible 
damage to boilers and expensive delays. 



SECTIONAL BOILERS. 

Probably one of the first sectional boilers brought into 
practical use is one made of hollow cast iron spheres, each 
8 inches in diameter, externally, and f of an inch thick, 
connected by curved necks 3i inch in diameter. These spheres 
are held together by wrought iron bolts and caps, and in one 
direction are cast in sets of 2 or 4, which are afterwards drawn 
together so as to give more or less heating surface to the boiler 
according to the number used. 



NOTE. 

Owing to their multiplication of parts all sectional, including 
water tube boilers, should be made with unusual care in their 
details of construction, setting, fittings and proportions. It is 
to the attention paid to these '' points " that the sectional 
boilers are now coming into more general favor. 



^2 Maxims and Instructions, 



LOCOMOTIVE BOILEES. 

The essential features of locomotive boilers are dictated by 
the duties which they have to perform under peculiar condi- 
tions. The size and the weight are limited by the fact that 
the boiler has to be transported rapidly from place to place, and 
also that it has to fit in between the frames of the locomotive ; 
while at the same time, the pressure of the steam has to be 
very great in order that with comparatively small cylinder the 
engine may develop great power ; moreover, the quantity of 
water which has to be evaporated in a given time is very con- 
siderable. To fulfil these latter conditions a large quantity of 
coal must be burned on a fire grate of limited area ; hence in- 
tense combustion is necessary under a forced blast. To utilize 
advantageously the heat thus generated, a large heating surface 
must be provided and this can only be obtained by passing the 
products of combustion through a great number of tubes of 
small diameter. 

The forced draught in a locomotive boiler is obtained by 
causing the steam from the cylinders, after it has done its 
work to be discharged into the chimney by means of a pipe 
called the blast pipe ; the lower portion of this consists of two 
branches, one in communication with the exhaust port of each 
cylinder. As each puff of steam from the blast pipe escapes 
up the chimney it forces the air out in front of it, causing a 
partial vacuum, which can only be supplied by the air rushing 
through the furnace and tubes. 

The greater the body of steam escaping at each puff, and the 
more rapid the succession of puffs, the more violent is the 
action of the blast pipe in producing a draught, and conse- 
quently this contrivance regulates the consumption of fuel and 
the evaporation of water to a certain extent automatically, 
because when the engine is working its hardest and using the 
most steam, the blast is at the same time most efficacious. 

The blast pipe is, perhaps, the most distinctive feature of the 
locomotive boiler, and the one which has alone rendered it 
possible to obtain large quantities of steam from so small a 



Maxims and Instructions, 



13 




74 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

generator. The steam blast of the locomotive has been com- 
pared to the breathing apparatus of a man, and has rendered 
the mechanism described nearer a live thing than any other 
device man has ever produced. 

On account of the oscillations, or violent motions to which 
the boiler of locomotive engines are subject, weighted safety 
valves are not possible to be used and springs are used instead 
to hold the valves in j^lace. 

The locomotive form of steam boiler is sometimes used for 
stationary engines, but owing to extra cost and increased 
liability to corrode in the smaller passage they are not favorites. 



DESCRIPTIOK OF PAGE ILLUSTRATION. 

In fig. 27, FB represents the fire box or furnace; F D, 
fire door ; D P, deflector plate ; F T P, fire box tube plate ; 
t" B R S, fire box roof stays ; S T P. smoke box tube plate ; 
S B, smoke box ; S B D, smoke box door ; S D, steam dome ; 
S, outer shell ; R S V", Ramsbottom safety valve ; F, funnel 
or chimney. 



' !! 


1 1 


1 1 I : - 


1 1 




' i 1 1 


: • 




i 1 II 




o^^ 



The crown plate of the fire-box being flat reqiures to be 
efficiently stayed, and for this purpose girder stays called fox 
roof stays are mostly used, as shown in the figure. The stays 
are now made of cast steel for locomotives. They rest at the 
two ends on the vertical plates of the fire-box, and sustain the 



Maxims and Inslructtons. 



75 



THE LOCOMOTIVE BOILER. 

pressure on the fire-box crown by a series of bolts passing 
througli the plate and girder stay, secured by nnts and washers. 
Fig. 28 is a plan and elevation of a wrought-iron roof stay. 

Another method adopted in locomotive types of marine 
boilers for staying the flat crown of the fire-box to the circular 
upper plate is shown in fig. 29— namely, by wrought-iron 
vertical bar stays secured by nuts and washers to the fire-box 
with a fork end and pin to angle-iron pieces riveted to the 
boiler shell. 





A^ Q Q ^ =Wt 



The letters in this figure refer to the same parts of the boiler 
as do those in fig. 27, i.e., F B to the fire-box, etc., etc. 



It was formerly the custom to make the tubes much longer 
than shown in the fig., with the object of gaining heating 
surface ; but modern experience has shown that the last three 
or four feet next the smoke box were of little or no use, because, 
by the time the products of combustion reached this part of the 
heating surface, their temperature was so reduced that but 
little additional heat could be abstracted from them. The 
tubes, in addition to acting as flues and heating surface, fulfil 
also the function of stays to the flat end of the barrel of the 
boiler, and the portion of the fire box opposite to it. 

' In addition to the staying power derived from the tubes, the 
smoke box, tube plate and the front shell plate are stayed 
together by several long rods. 



76 



Maxims and InstrMctions, 




^ 



M 

o 

PQ 

< 

t» 
pq 
<1 

H 

"A 

o 

tSJ 

M 

o 



Maxims and Instructions, 



STANDARD HORIZONTAL TUBULAR STEAM BOILER. 



TABLE OF SIZES, PROPOETIOlirS, ETC. 







5 °,d 




mber 
of 
abes. 


©<^, © 


W 


uare 
et of 
ating 
rface. 




s ^ 


- «. 


^ m 


o W 


^ ^ 




H 


^ B 


*«w^ 


^w^ 


72 in. 


19 ft. 4 in. 


3-8 in. 


1-2 in. 


80 


4 


in. 


18 ft. Oin. 


1,500 


100 


72 " 


18** 4" 


3-8 ** 


1-2 ** 


86 


8* 


<i 


17** 0'* 


1,500 


100 


72 " 


17" 4*' 


8-8 *• 


1-2 ** 


108 


8 


(( 


16 " ** 


1,500 


100 


66 


■8" 4" 


3-8 ** 


1-2 ** 


74 


3* 


(( 


17** 0** 


1,350 


90 


66 '• 


17** 4** 


3-8 ** 


1-2 *' 


92 


3 


«( 


16 " ** 


1,350 


90 


60 " 


18" 3" 


3-8 ** 


1-2 ** 


78 


8 


u 


17** 0" 


1,200 


80 


60 " 


17" 3" 


3-8 •* 


1-2 " 


76 


8 


<< 


16 " ** 


1,125 


75 


60 " 


16" 3" 


3-8 ** 


1-2 ** 


77 


3 


(( 


15 " ** 


1,050 


70 


60 " 


16" 3" 


3-8 *' 


1-2 ** 


70 


3 


«( 


15** 0** 


975 


65 


60 " 


16" 3" 


3-8 ** 


1-2 " 


64 


8 


<( 


15 " ** 


900 


60 


54 *' 


17 " 3 " 


5-16 " 


7-16 ** 


60 


3 


(( 


16** 0** 


90o 


50 


54 ** 


17 " 3 " 


5-16 " 


7-16 *• 


56 


3 


it 


16** 0*' 


825 


55 


54 '' 


16 " 3 " 


5-16 ** 


7-16 " 


52 


3 


(< 


15 *' 0" 


750 


50 


54 ♦♦ 


16 " 3 " 


5-16 '* 


7-16 ** 


46 


3 


.( 


15 *' ** 


675 


45 


54 " 


16 " 3 " 


5-16 " 


7-16 ** 


40 


3 


(( 


15 '♦ *' 


600 


40 


48 '' 


17" 2" 


5-16 *' 


7-16 ** 


50 


8 


«' 


16 ** •* 


750 


50 


48 *' 


16" 2" 


5-16 ** 


7-16 *' 


48 


8 


(( 


15** 0'* 


675 


45 


48 " 


16" 2" 


5-16 *' 


7-16 *' 


42 


8 


(( 


15** 0'* 


600 


40 


42 ** 


16** 2** 


1-4 ** 


3-8 '* 


36 


3 


(( 


15'* 0" 


525 


35 


42 *' 


15** 2" 


1-4 ** 


3-8 ** 


32 


3 


«. 


14 ** ** 


450 


30 


43 *' 


14 " 2 *' 


1-4 " 


3-8 ** 


28 


3 


i( 


13" 0" 


375 


25 


36 •• 


14*' 2 '* 


1-4 ** 


3-8 ** 


36 


2+ 


(( 


13" 0" 


375 


25 


36 ♦• 


14 ** 2 '* 


1-4 *' 


3-8 ** 


28 


2i 


<( 


13" 0** 


300 


20 


36 "■ 


13 •* 2 ** 


1-4 ** 


3-8 ** 


20 


2^ 


'< 


12*' 0** 


225 


15 


36 " 


12 ** 2 ** 


1-4 *' 


3-8 •♦ 


14 


2i 


(( 


11 ** 0** 


150 


10 



Note. 



In estimating the horse power by means of the aliove table, 
15 square feet has been allowed for each horse power, and the 
number of feet in each boiler is given in round numbers. This 
j-able is one used in every day practice by boiler makers. 



78 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE FLUE BOILER. 




The Two Flue Boiler.— Fig. 31, 




The Six Inch Flue Boiler.— Fig. 33. 



Maxims and Instructions. 7^ 

THE HORIZONTAL TUBULAR STEAM BOILER» 

The great majority of stationary boilers are cylindrical m 
^'ound shaped, because 

1. The cylindrical form is the strongest. 

2. It is the cheapesto 

3 It permits the use of thxi^iier metaL 

4. It is the safest. 

5. It is inspected without diflficultjo 
6o It is most symmetrical. 

7. It is manufactured easier. 

8. It resists internal strain better. 

9. It resists external strain also. 

10. It can be stayed or strengthened bettero 

llo It encloses the greatest volume with least materialo 

1^. It is the result of many years experience in boiler 
practice. 

13. It is the form adopted or preferred by all experienced 

engineers. 

It follows, too, that the horizontal tubular toiler, substan- 
tially as shown in Fig. 30, is the standard steam boiler ; engi- 
neers and steam power owners cling with great tenacity to this 
approved form, which is an outgrowth of one hundred years* 
experience in steam production. 

In the plain horizontal tubular boiler shown in cuts, the 
shell is filled with as many small tubes varying from two inches 
to four inches in diameter as is consistent with the circulation 
and steam space. In firing this type of boiler the combustion 
first takes place under the shell, and the products, such 
as heat, flame, and gas, pass through the small tubes to the 
chimney, although in the triple draught pattern of the tubular 
boiler, the heat products pass, as will hereafter be explained, a 
second time through the boiler tubes, making three turns 
Ibefore the final loss of the extra heat takes place. 



So 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE HORIZONTAL TUBULAE STEAM BOILER. 

The illustrations on pages 78 and 80 exhibit the gradual ad- 
vances to the horizontal tubular by the two-flued boiler (fig. 31) 
of the six flues (fig. 32) and of the locomotive Portable Boiler 
(fig. 33). The vertical or upright tubular boiler is but anotiiQi 
modification of the horizontal tubular. 




The Locomotive Portable Boiler.— Fig, 33. 

In parts of the vertical boiler there is very little circu- 
lation and the corrosion on the inner side is such as to wear the 
boiler rapidly. In the ash pit;, ashes and any dampness that 
may be about the place also causes rapid corrosion. The upper 
part of the tubes and tube sheet are frequently injured ; for 
instance, if the tubes pass all the way through to the upper 
tube sheet, providing there is no cone top, when the fire is 
first made under the boiler, combustion at times does not take 
place until the gases pass nearly through the tubes. The water 
usually being carried below the tube sheet there is a space left 
above the water line, where there is neither steam nor water, 
and the heat is so great that the ends of the tubes are burned 
and crystalized, and the tube sheet is often cracked and broken 
by this excessive heat before the steam is generated The first 
difficulty is experienced in ''' the legs " of the Portable Loco- 
motive boiler^hence the general verdict of steam users iu favor 
pf the round shelly manv-tubed bpile?. 



Maxims and Instrudtons. 8i 



PAETS OF THE TUBULAR BOILER. 

The Shell. This is tbe round or cylindrical structure 
which is commonly described as the boiler, in which are insert- 
ed the braces and tubes, and which sustains the internal strain 
of the pressure of the steam, the action of the water within, and 
the fire without. 

The Drum. This part is sometimes called the dome, and 
-consists of an upper chamber riveted to the top of the boiler 
for the purpose of affording more steam space. 

The Tube Sheets. These are the round, flat flanged 
sheets forming the two ends of the boiler, into which the tubes 
are fastened. 

The Man^hole Cover. This is a plate and frame com- 
monly opening inwards and large enough to admit a man into 
the interior of the boiler. These openings are sometimes made 
on the top and sometimes at the end of the boiler. Manhole 
openings in steam boilers should invariably be located in the 
head of the boiler, except in rare cases that may arise, when 
circumstances require it to be placed in the shell. The man- 
hole, so placed, will not materially reduce the strength of the 
boiler, and from this position it can more readily be seen that 
the boiler is kept in proper conditioUo The proper sizes for 
manholes are 9x5 and 10x16, according to circumstanceSo 
These are amply large for general use and no material advantage 
is gained by increasing them. 

The Hand Hole Plates. These are similar arrange- 
ments to the manhole cover, except as to size. They are made 
large enough to admit the hand into the boilers for the purpose 
of removing sediment and they are also used for the purpose of 
inspecting the interior of the boiler. Two are usually put in 
each boiler, one front and one in the rear. 

The Blow Off. This consists of pipes and a cock com- 
municating with the bottom of the boiler for the purpose of 
blowing off the boiler or of running off the water when the 
former needs cleaning. 



8s 



Maxims and Instructions. 




Maxims and Instructions. 



S3 



THE TRIPLE DRAUGHT TUBULAR BOILER. 

This boiler, which is extensively used by the manufacturers 
of New England, is, as will be seen by the illustration, of the 
horizontal tubular class, and is essentially different from the 
well-known type only in the arrangement of the tubes. The 
method secures the passage of the products of combustion 
through the same shell twice; forward through a part of the 
tubes, and backwards through the remaining ones. The man- 
ner of accomplishing this result can be best described by 
explaining how a common tubular boiler may be remodelled 
so as to carry out this principle. ^ 

A cylindrical shell, as shown in Fig. 34 — of sufficient size to 
encircle about one-half of the tubes, is attached to ilie outside of 



Ha 



^. 



Oia^ 



s 



■^ 



WiJttrLine, 



^ 



C} 



I 




^^J 









■nv 



-^ 



iii i iiii i i ii ii ii n i ii i i i ii i [iri i riiiiiiin%,^ ^ 



Fig, 35. 



tlie rear head below the water line, and extended backward to 
the back end of the setting. The encircled tubes are lengthen- 
ed and carried backward to the same point ; the extension is 
closed in and made to communicate with the boiler proper ; 
the inner tubes emerge to the flue leading to the chimney and 
the old connection from the smoke arch is cutoff. With this 
arrangement, the outer tabes of the boiler— a cluster on each 
side of the supplementary shell carry the products of combus- 
tion forward to the front smoke arch, and the inner tubes carry 
them backward to the chimney. 



84. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



THE TRIPLE DRAU(JHT TUBULAR BOILER. 

Fig. 35 exhibits tlie boiler in half sectiom and sbowis the 
course of the heat products through one of the outer tubes and 
returning through the boiler by one of the inner cluster. 

Fig. 36 (page 84) shows the boiler sectionally, over the 
bridge wall ; the shaded tube ends exhibit the cluster which 
return the heat products to the rear of the boiler, after being 
brought forward by the two outer clusters which are left un- 
shaded. 

This arrangement of the tul)es giyes several advantages : 

1. It enables an exceedingly high furnace temperature, with- 
out loss at the chimney. 

2. By dividing the heat into these currents a more equal ex- 
pansion and contraction is secured. This is an important point 
secured. 

3. In this system the tubes are almost equally operative. 

4. The extra body of water immediately over the furnace is 
both an element of safety and a reservoir of power. 

5. The outlet for the waste products of combustion is found 
in this style of boiler in a more convenient position at the rear 
end of the boiler. 

6. The boiler being self contained, can be used in places 
where height of story is limited. 




Fig. 36. 



Maxims and htstriecitons. ^5 



SPEOIFIOATIOK FOR 125 HORSE POWER BOILERo 



For one Horizontal Tubular Boiler 72 inches diameter 18 
feet long for , of 

Type. 

The boiler to be of the Horizontal Tubular type with all 
castings and mountings complete. 

Dimensions. 

Boiler 72 inches diameter and 18 feet long. Each boiler to 
contain 90 best lap welded tubes 3^ inches diameter by 18 feet 
long, set iia vertical and horizontal rows with a space between 
them vertically and horizontally of no less than one inch and 
one quarter (IJ) except central vertical space, which is to be 
three inches (3). No tube to be nearer than two and one-half 
inches (2J) to shell or boiler. Holes through heads to be 
neatly chamfered off. All tubes to be set by Dudgeon Ex- 
pander and slightly flared at front end, turned over and beaded 
down at back end. 

Quality and Thickness of Steel Plates. 

Shell plates to be ^ inch thick of homogeneous steel of 
uniform quality having a tensile strength of not less than 
65,000 lbs. Name of maker, brand and tensile strength to be 
plainly stamped on each plate. 

Heads to be of same quality as plates of shell in all particulars 
f inch thick. Bottom of shell to be of one plate, and no 
plate to be less than 7 feet wide. Top of shell to be in 
three plates. All plates planed before rolling, and all joints 
fullered not caulked. 

Flanges. 

All flanges to be turned in a neat manner to an internal 
radius of not less than two inches (2) and to be clear of cracks, 
checks or flaws. 



o6 Maxims and Instructions. 

SPECIFICATION FOR STEAM BOILER. 

Riveting. 

Boilers to be riveted with f inch rivet throughout. All girth 
seams to be double riveted. All horizontal seams to be double 
riveted. Rivet holes to be punched or drilled so as to come 
fair in construction. No drift T)ins to be used in construction 
of the boilers. 

Braces. 

All braces to be of the crowfoot pattern, one and one-eighth 
(1^) inch diameter and the shortest ta be no less than four feet 
(4) long and of sufficient number for thorough bracing, and to 
bear uniform tension. 

Manholes, Hand Holes and Thimbles. 

One manhole in top of each boiler with heavy cast iron frame 
riveted on middle of centre plate ; one manhole near the bot- 
tom of each front head ; head reinforced with a wrought iron 
ring two inches (2) square, riveted to heads with flush c^»unter- 
sunk rivets two inches (2) pitch and to have all the necessary- 
bolts, plates, guards and gaskets ; two six inch thimbles riveted 
to top of each boiler, each to have a planed face ; one heavy 6 
inch flange on bottom of each boiler, 12 inches from back end 
to centre ox flange. There must be two braces, one on each 
side of manhole in front head ; also to have three braces 
opposite manhole on back head below tubes. 

Lugs. 

Four (4) lugs riveted on each side of boilers, of good and 
sufficient size, with six one-inch rivets in each lug. 

Castings. 

Each boiler to have a complete set of castings consisting of 
ornamental flush fronts containg tube, fire and ash-pit doors, 
and provide the best stationary grate bars as may be selected by 
buyer, with the necessary fixtures, all bearing bars, britching 
plates, dead plates, binder bars, back cleaning out doors with 
frames. Anchor bolts and buck stays. The fire door to con- 
tain adjustable air opetiing and to be protected with fire shields. 
One heavy cast iron arch over each boiler. 



Maxims and Instructions, ^7 

SPECIFICATION FOR STEAM BOILER. 

Testing. 

Boilers to be tested witli a water pressure of 200 lbs. per 
square inch and certificate of such test haying been made shall 
be furnished with boiler. Test of boiler to be under direction 
of such steam boiler Insurance Company as may be selected by 
buyer. 

Quality and Workmanship, 

All boilers to be made in the best workmanlike manner and 
all material of their respective kinds to be of the best, dXkd. in 
strict accordance with specification. 

Fittings and Mountings. 

The boiler to be furnished with the following : One four 
inch heavy mounted safety valve. One six inch flanged globe 
valve. Two two inch best globe valves. Two two inch check 
valves. One eight inch dial nickle plated steam gauge. One 
low water alarm gauge. One set of fire irons for two boilers 
consisting of hoe, poker, slice bar and shovel. 

Drawings. 

All drawings furnished for masons in setting the boilers. 

Duty of Boiler. 

The boiler to develop 120 horse power and to work under a 
constant pressure varying from 125 to 150 lbs. to the square 
inch. 

All rivets are to be 2| and IJ inch pitch. The pitch line of 
the rivets to be not nearer 1^ inches to the edge of the sheet. 

To be 8 lug plates for each boiler not less than 2 feet long, fi 
inches wide, and one inch thick. 

There shall be six 1 inch anchor rods running front to reai 
of each boiler, in the brick work. 

These boilers and all their fronts, fittings and connection* 
will be subject to the inspection of , 



^^ Maxims and Instructions. 



MARKS ON BOILER PLATES. 

Something has heen said under another heading of the 
nature and requisite quality of the materials entering into 
the structure of the boiler. Too much emphasis cannot be 
laid upon the necessity for the use of the very best iron and 
steel that can be manufactured, and the most skillful and 
thorough workmanship that can be performed in constructing 
the boiler. 

It is becoming the practice, both for land and marine boilers, 
for boiler plate makers to furnish " test pieces " from each 
sheet or plate that goes into the construction of a boiler, and a 
sheet showing the tensile strength of each sheet or plate that 
entersnnto its make up. 

But irrespective of this practice each plate entering into 
boiler construction will be found to have one of the following 
marks, which designate its quality and method of manufacture. 
The name '* Charcoal Iron ^' is used because in its manufac- 
ture wood charcoal is employed instead of mineral fuel. 

** Charcoal No. 1 Iron '' (U. No. 1) is made entirely of 
charcoal iron. It has a tenacity of 40,000 pounds per square 
inch in the direction of the fibre. It is hard, but not very 
ductile, and should never be used for flanging. 

" Charcoal Hammered No. 1 Shell Iron'' (0. H. No. 1 S.), 
although not necessarily hammered, has been worked up before 
H is rolled into plates. It has a tenacity of 60,000 to 55,000 
pounds per square inch in the direction of the fibre. It is 
rather bard iron, and should not be flanged. It is used for the 
outside shell of boilers. 

" Flange iron '' (C. H. No. 1 F.), is a ductile material which 
can be flanged in every direction. It has a tenacity of 50,000 
to 55,000 pounds per square inch along the fibre. 

'' Fire Box Iron'' (0. H. No. 1 F. B.), is a harder quality, 
designed especially to withstand the destructive effect of the 
impinging flame, and is used for boxes and flue-sheets. 

The letters in the brackets exhibit the plate stamp. 

Cast iron and copper were used in an early day for steam 
boilers and the former is still extensively used for certain forms 
of low pressure steam heaters made for various purposes, such 
as green-kcma^ei * K "^ 



Maxims and Instructions. 8g 



CONSTRUCTION OF BOILERS. 

In selecting a boiler, the most efficient design will be found 
to be that in which the greatest amount of shell surface is ex- 
posed to direct heaf. It is the direct heating surface that does 
the bulk of the work and every tendency to reduce it, either 
in the construction or setting of the boiler, should be avoided. 
The smaller the amount of surface enclosed by or in contact 
with the setting, the better results will be obtained. 

A boiler with a bad circulation is the bane of an engineer's 
existence. Proper circulation facilities constitute one of the 
chief factors in the construction of a successful and economi- 
cal boiler. In tubular boilers the best practice places the tubes 
in vertical rows, leaving out what would be the centre row. 
The circulation is up the sides of the boiler and down the cen- 
tre. Tubes set zig-zag to break spaces impede the circulation 
and are not considered productive of the best results. 

The surface from which evaporation takes place should be 
made greater as the steam pressure is reduced, that is to say, as 
the size of the bubbles of steam become greater. To produce 
1 00 lbs. of steam per hour at atmospheric pressure this surface 
should not be less than 732 square feet, which may be reduced 
to 146 square feet for steam at 75 lbs. pressure, and to 73 feet 
for steam at a pressure of 150 lbs. It is for this reason that 
triple-expansion engines can be worked with smaller boilers 
than are required with engines using steam of lower pressure. 
The amount of steam space to be permitted depends upon the 
volume of the cylinders and the number of revolutions made 
per minute. Eor ordinary engines it may be made a hundred 
times as great as the average volume of steam generated per 
second. 

A volume of heated water in a boiler performs the same 
office in furnishing a steady supply of steam, as a fly-wheel 
does to an engine in insuring uniformity of speed ; hence the 
centre space of a boiler should be ample, in order to take ad- 
vantage of this reserve force. 



go Maxims and Instrttctions, 

QUALITY OF STEEL PLATES. 

Steel for boilers is always of the kind known as low steel, or 
soft steel, and is, properly speaking, ingot iron, all of its char- 
acteristics being those of a tenacious, bending, equal grained 
iron, and quite different from true steels, such as knife blades, 
cutting tools, etc., are composed of. Steel is rapidly displacing 
iron in boiler construction, as it has greater strength for the 
same thickness, than iron ; and, except in rare instances, where 
the nature of the water available for feed renders steel unde- 
sirable, iron should not be used for making boilers, careful tests 
having shown ifc to be vastly inferior to steel in many import- 
ant features. 

Good boiler steel up to one-half inch in thickness should be 
capable of being doubled over and hammered down on itself 
without showing any signs of fracture, and above that thick- 
ne s it should be capable of being bent around a mandrel of a 
diameter equal to one and one-half times the thickness of the 
plate, to an angle of 180 degrees without sign of distress. Such 
bending pieces should not be less in length than sixteen times 
the thickness of the plate. 

On this test piece the metal should show the following physi- 
cal qualities : 

Tensile strength, 55,000 to 65,000 pounds per square inch. 

' Elongation, 20 per cent, for plates three-eighths inch thick 
or less. 

Elongation, 22 per cent, for plates from three-eighths to 
three-fourths inch thick. 

Elongation, 25 per cent, for plates over three-fourths inch 
thick. 

The cross sectional area of the test piece should be not less 
than one-half of one square inch, i. e., if the piece is one-fourth 
inch thick, its width should be two inches ; if 'it be one-half 
inch thick, its width should be one inch. But for heavier 
material the width shall in no case be less than the tbickness of 
the plate. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



9f 



Nickel Steel Boiler Plates. 

It has been found that the addition of about three per cent. 
(3.16 to 3.32) of nickel to ordinary soft steel produces most 
favorable results ; thus it has been shown by Eiley that a par- 
ticular variety of nickel steel presents to the engineer the means 
of nearly doubling holier pressures ivithout increasing iv eight or 
dimensions. 

In a recent experiment made with Bessemer steel rolled into 
three-fourths inch plates^from which a number of test specimens 
were cut, the elastic limit was respectively 59,000 pounds and 
60,000 pounds. The ultimate tensile strength was 100,000 
pounds and 102,000 pounds, respectively. The elongation was 
15J per cent, in each specimen, and the reduction of area at 
fracture was 29^ per cenc. and 2e|- per cent, respectively. 
These figures show that the elastic limit and ultimate tensile 
strength were raised by the nickel alloy to almost double the 
limits reached in the best grades of boiler plate steel, and the 
elongation was reduced to a scarcely appreciable extent. 

The experiment had for its object, the reproduction, as 
nearly as possible, of the alloy used in the nickel steel armor 
plate made at Le Creusot, France, and the results were reported 
to the Secretary of the Navy at Washington. The new plate 
showed a percentage of 3.16 nickel, as against 3.32 for the im- 
ported plate. 

EIYETING. 

When the materials are of best quality, then there only re- 
mains to rivet and stay the boiler. Riveting is of two kinds, 
single and double. Fig. 37 shows the method of single rivet- 
ing, and Figs. 38 and 39 show the plan and cross-section of 
double riveted sheets. 



DouUe riveting con- 
sists in making the joints 
of boiler work with two 
rows of rivets instead of 
one — nearly always, hori- 
zontal seams are double 
riveted as well as domes 
where they join upon the 
boiler. Usually all girth 




Fig. 37. 



pi 



Maxims and Ins true tzons. 



RIVETING. 
Beams, — those ranning round the body of the boiler, are single 
riveted. The size of the rivets is in proportion to the diameter 
of the boiler, being f , f and f as required in the specification. 
Eivet holes are made by punching or drilling, according 
to the material in which they are made. In soft iron and mild 
steel they may safely be punched, but in metal at all brittle the 
holes should be drilled. 

Rivets are driven by 
hand, by steam riveting 
machines or by an im- 
proved pneumatic ma- 
chine which holds the 
sheet together and strikes 
a succession of light blows 
to form the head of the 
rivet while hot. Rivets 
Fig. 38. are made both of iron and 

steel, and there are certain well-known brands of such excellent 
quality that they are almost exclusively used in boiler work. 

A place where skill is shown in boiler construction is in 
laying out the rivet holes, with a templet so that the sheets 
come exactly together with the holes so neatly opposite that the 
dreaded drift pin does not have to be used. 

In these figures the letters P and p refer to the ''pitch of the 
rivets," i, e., the part from centre to centre, and the dimensions 
given at the sides indicate the amount of lap given in inches 
and tenths of inches — the diameter of the rivet (1") is also 
shown, and the turned over portion of the shank of the rivet is 
shown by dotted lines. 





Fig. 89. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



93 



RIVETING. 

No riveted boiler work can be considered fairly proportioned 
unless the strength of the plate between the rivets is fully equal 
to the strength of the rivets themselves. A margin (or net dis- 
tance from outside of holes to edge of plate) equal to the diam- 
eter of the drilled hole has been found sufficient. 

Rivets should be made of good charcoal iron or of a very 
soft mild steel, running between 50,000 and 60,000 pounds ten- 
sile strength and showing an elongation of not less than ninety 
per cent, in eight inches, and having the same chemical com- 
position as specified for plates. 

A long rivet, holding thick plates together, is rarely tight 
except immediately under the head. The heads are set and the 
centre cooled before the hole is properly filled. If it is a very 
long rivet there is a chance of the contraction fracturing the 
head of the rivet. In the Forth Bridge, which is mad e of very 
heavy plate girders, the rivets, first carefully fitted, were driven 
tight into the holes, the burr around the holes was removed 
and the ends of the rivets heated to a sufiicient degree to ena- 
ble them to be closed over. 

A simple mathematical deduction shows that a circle seam 
has just one-half the strain to carry as a longitudinal seam, 
under the same pressure and with the same thickness of metal, 
hence the custom of single riveting the former and double riv- 
eting the latter, or longwise seams. 

Different Modes of Eivetikg. 



Chain 
Riveting. 


ZiG Zag 
Riveting. 


TRBBI.E 

Riveting. 


UNEQUAli 

Pitches. 


o o o 
O o 


O o 
o 


O O O 

O 



O 
O 
o 



94 



Maxims and Instructions, 



RIVETING. 
In fig. 41 may be seen an example of zig-zag riveting. 




Fig. 41. 

Caulking — By this is meant the closing of the edges of the 
Beams of boilers or plates. In preparing the seams for caulking, 
the edges are first planed true inside and outside ; and after 
the plates have been riveted together, the edges are oaulked or 
closed by a blunt chisel about \ inch thick at the edge which 
should be struck with a 3 or 4 lb. hammer ; sometimes one man 
doing the work alone and sometimes one holding the chisel 
and another striking. 

Fullering a boiler plate is done by a round-nosed tool, while 
caiilhing is executed by a sharper instrument. 

The thinnest plate which should be used in a boiler is one- 
fourth of an inch, on account -of the almost impossibility of 
caulking the seams o£ thinner plates. 



It is a rule well known to all practical boiler makers that the 
thinner the metal (compatible with due strength) the longer 
the life of the boiler under its varying stresses and the better 
the caulking will stand. 



Maxims and Instructions, 95 

STEEL RIVETS. 

Hitherto there has been some prejudice against steel rivets, 
and while this may have some foundation when iron plates are 
used, it is certainly baseless when steel plates are concerned. 
The United States government has clearly demonstrated this. 
All the ships of the new navy have steel boilers, riveted with 
steel rivets, and an examination of the character of the material 
prescribed and the severity of the tests to which it is subjected 
show that these steel-riveted steel boilers are probably the best 
boilers ever constructed. 

United States Government Eequirements for Boiler Eivets. 

They are subjected to the most severe hammer tests, such as 
flattening out cold to a thickness of one-half the diameter, and 
flattening out hot to a thickness of one-third the diameter. In 
neither case must they show cracks or flaws. 

Kind of Material. — Steel for boiler rivets must be made by 
either the open-hearth or Clapp-Griffith process, and must not 
show more than .035 of one per centum of phosphorus nor 
more than .04 of one per centum of sulphur, and must be of 
the best quality in other respects. 

Each ton of rivets from the same heat or blow shall consti- 
tute a lot. Four specimens for tensile tests shall be cut from 
the bars from which the lot of rivets is made. 

Tensile Tests. — The rivets for use in the longitudinal seams 
of boiler shells shall have from 58,000 to 67,000 pounds tensile 
strength, with an elongation of not less than 26 per centum ; 
and all others shall have a tensile strength of from 50,000 to 
58,000 pounds, with an elongation of not less than 30 per 
centum in eight (8) inches. 

Hammer Test. — From each lot twelve (12) rivets are to be 
taken at random and submitted to the following tests : 

Four (4) rivets to be flattened out cold under the hammer to 
a thickness of one- half the diameter without showing cracks or 
flaws. 

Four (4) rivets to be flattened out hot under the hammer to 
a thicKness of one-third the diameter without showing cracks 
or flaws — ^the heat to bq the working heat when driven. 



96 



Maxims and Instructions, 



STEEL RIVETS. 

Four (4) rivets to be bent cold into tbe form of a hook ^ ^ti 
parallel sides without showing cracks or flaws. 

Surface Inspection, — Rivets must be true to form, free from 
scale, fins, seams and all other unsightly or injurious defects. 

In view of the fact that the government is using many hun- 
dred, tons of these rivets, shown by the records of the tests to 
be vastly superior to any iron rivet made, in all the essentials of 
a good rivet, it would seem that it would benefit the boiler 
maker, the purchaser of the boiler and also the maker of the 
rivet by adopting a standard steel rivet to be used in all steel 
boilers. 



BRACING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

The material of a boiler being satisfactory and the plates 
being thoroughly and skillfully riveted there remains the im- 
portant matter of strengthening the boiler against the enormous 
internal pressure not altogether provided for. 




To illustrate the importance of attention to this point it may 
be remarked that a boiler eighteen feet m length by five feet in 
diameter, with 40 four-inch tubes, under a head of 80 pounds 
of steam, has a pressure of nearly 113 tons on each head, 1,625 
tons on the shell and 4,333 tons on the tubes, making a total 
of 6,184 tons on the whole of the exposed surfaces. 

Not only is this immense force to be withstood, but owing to 
the fact that the boiler grows weak with age — a safety factor of 
SIX has been adopted by inspectors, %, e., the boiler must be 
made six times as strong as needed m every day workin|t: prao 
tice. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



9r 



BBAdNQ OF STEAM BOILEB& 




Fig. 43. 

Braces in" the Boiler. — Tbe proper bracing of flat sur- 
faces exposed to pressure, is a matter of tlie greatest import- 
ance, as the power of resistance to bulging possessed by any 
considerable extent of such a surface, made as they must be in 
the majority of cases of thin plates, is so small that 'practically 
the whole load has to he carried hy the braces. This being the 
case, it is evident that as much attention should be given to 
properly designing, proportioning, distributing and construct- 
ing the brace as to any other portion of the boiler. 

All flat surfaces should be strongly supported with braces 
of the best refined iron, or mild steel, having a tensile strength 
of not less than 58,000 lbs. to the square inch. These braces 
must be provided with crow feet or heavy angle iron properly 
distributed throughout the boiler. 




Fig. 44 



^ Maxims and Instructions. 

BRACING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

Pig. 42 shows the method usually followed in staying small 
horizontal tubular boilers. The cut represents a 36 inch head 
and there are five braces in each head : two short ones and 
three long ones The braces should be attached to shell and 
head by two rivets at each end. The rivets should be of such 
size that tlie comlined area of their shanks will be at least 
equal to the body of the brace, and their length should be sufli- 
cienb to give a good large head on the outside to realize 
strength equal to the body of the brace. 

In boilers with larger diameters, 5 to 8 feet, stay ends are 
made of angle or T iron ; by this arrangement the stays can be 
placed further apart, the angle irons very effectively staying 
the plate between the stays, and thus affording more room in 
the body of the boiler. The size of the stays have to be 
increased in proportion to the greater load they have to 
sustain. See Fig. 43. 

In a 66 inch boiler it is proper to have not less than 10 
braces in each head, none under three feet in length, made of 
the best round iron one inch in diameter, with ends of braces 
made of iron 2i^xJ inches with three pieces of T iron riveted 
to head above the tubes to which the braces are attached with 
suitable pins or turned bolts. See Fig. 44. 

Stayii^g of Flat Surfaces. — When Boilers are formed 
principally of flat plates, like low-pressure marine boilers, or 
the fire-boxes of locomotive boilers, the form contributes noth- 
ing to the strength, which must, therefore, be provided for by 
staying the opposite furnaces together. Fig. 45 shows the 
arrangement of the stays in a locomotive fire-box. They 
are usually pitched about 4 inches from centre to centre, and 

are fastened into the opposite 
plates by screwing, as shown, the 
heads being riveted over. Each 
stay has to bear the pressure of 
steam on a square aa, and the 
sectional area of the stay must be 
so chosen that the tensile strength 
will be sufficient to bear the straia 
^w. *j, ^. ^u thQ proTiftr factor of safety. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



99 



BRACING OF STEAM BOILERS. 
If the spaces between the stays are too great, or the plate 
too thin, there is a danger of the structure yielding through 
the plate bulging outwards between the points of attachment 
of the stays, thus allowing the latter to draw through the 
screwed holes made in the plates. 

In designing boilers with stayed surfaces, care should be 
taken that the opposite plates connected by any system of stays 
should, as far as possible, be of equal area, otherwise there is 
sure to be an unequal distribution of load in the stays, some 
receiving more than their proper share, and moreover, the 
least supported plate is exposed to the danger of buckling. 

KULE FOR FlKDIKG PrESSUKE OR StRAIK OK BOLTS. 

The absolute stress or strain on a flat surface of a steam 
boiler, which is carried by the stays, can be easily determined 
by a simple rule : 

Choose 3 stays as A B C 
in Fig. 46, measure from A 
to B in inches, and from A 
to C. Multiply these two 
numbers together and the 
result is the number of 
square inches of surface 
depending upon one bolt for 
supporting strength. 

Example. 

Suppose the stays measure 
Fig. 46. from center to center 5 

inches each way with steam at 80 lbs., then 

5x5=25x80^:2,000 lbs. borne by 1 stay. 




Note. 

The pressure on the surface does not include the space occu- 
pied by the area of the stay bolt, hence, to be absolutely correct 
that must be deducted. 



lOO 



Maxims and Instructions. 



GUSSET STAYS. 
The flat ends of cylindrical boilers are, especially in marine 
boilers, stayed to the round portions of triangular plates of iron 
called gusset stays. These are simply pieces of plate iron 
secured to the boiler front or back, near the top or bottom, by 
means of two pieces of angle iron, then carried to the shell plat- 
ing, and again secured by other pieces of angle bar. This 
arrangement is shown in Fig. 47. 




Fig, 47. 
Palm Stats. — These are shown in Fig. 48, and are often 
used in the same position as a gusset stay; that is, from the 
back or front end of the boiler to the shell plates; they are 
sometimes used to stay the curved tops of combustion cham- 
bers. 




Fig. 48. 

The two opposite ends are also stayed together by long bar 

stays, running the whole length of the boiler, it is dangerous, 

however, to trust too much to the latter class of stays; for, in 

consequence of the alternate expansion and contraction whicii 



Maxims and Instructions. 



lOt 



SCREWED STAYS, 
takes place every time the boiler is heated and cooled, they 
have a tendency to work loose at the joints; and if the "Dortion 
of the boiler in which they are situated should happen to be 
hotter than the outside shell, they have a tendency to droop, 
and are then perfectly useless. 

RIVETED OR SCREW STAYS. 




Fig. 49. 

In addition to palm and gusset stays there are in use riveted 
©r screwed stays, as shown in Fig. 49. 

This would not answer in furnaces, owing to the burning off 
of the heads, hence driven stays are used there 




Fig. 50. 

These screwed stays, shown in Fig. 50, are used (in marine 
and similar boilers) between the combustion chamber back and 
boiler back and also between the sides of the combustion cham- 
bers. 

The general plan is to have a large nut and washer inside and 
outside the boiler with the outside washer considerable larger 
than the inside, so as to hold more efficiently the back and 
front ends together. 

In marine boilers it is customary to place the stays 15 to 18 
inches apart for ease of access to the parts of the boiler, and to 
make them of 2:^ to 2^ inch iron of the best quality. 



lot Maxims and Instructtons. 



INSPECTOR'S RULES RELATING TO BRACES IN STEAM BOIL- 
ERS, ALSO TO BE OBSERVED BY ENGINEERS, 

Where flat surfaces exist, the inspector must satisfy him- 
self that the spacing and distance apart of the bracing, and all 
other parts of the boiler, are so arranged that all will be of not 
less strength than the shell, and he must also after applying 
the hydrostatic test, thoroughly examine every part of the boiler. 

!N"o braces or stays employed in the construction of marine 
boilers shall be allowed a greater strain than six thousand 
pounds per square inch of section, and no screw stay bolt shall 
be allowed to be used in the construction of marine boilers in 
which salt water is used to generate steam, unless said stay 
bolt is protected by a socket. But such screw stay bolts, with- 
out sockets, may be used in staying the fire boxes and furnaces 
of such boiler, and not elsewhere, when fresh water is used for 
generating steam in said boiler. Water used from a surface 
condenser shall be deemed fresh water. And no brace or stay 
bolt used in a marine boiler will be allowed to be placed more 
than eight and one-half inches from centre to centre, except that 
flat surfaces, other than those on fire boxes, furnaces and back 
connections, may be reinforced by a washer or X 11*0^ of such 
size and thickness as would not leave such flat surface unsup-* 
ported at a greater distance, in any case, than eight and one- 
half inches, and such flat surface shall not be of less strength 
than the shell of the boiler, and able to resist the same strain 
and pressure to the square inch, and no braces supporting such 
flat reinforced surfaces, will be allowed more than 16 inches 
apart. 

In allowing the strain on a screw stay bolt, the diameter of 
the same shall be determined by the diameter at the bottom 
of the thread. Many State laws and City ordinances allow a 
strain of seven thousand five hundred pounds per square inch 
of section on good bracing without welds. The following table 
gives the safe load of round iron braces or stays. 



Maxims and /nstruetitms. 



>o3 



DIAMETER OF BRACR 



Tensue 

strength per 

•quare inch of 

section allowed 


r 


r 


2208 
2650 
3092 
3313 


1" 

3006 
3607 
4209 
4509 


1" 

3927 
4712 
5497 
5890 


H" 

4970 
5964 
6958 
7455 


6136 
7363 
8590 
9204 


8835 
10602 
12369 
13253 


12026 
14431 
16837 
18039 


r 


6000 
6000 
7000 
7500 


981 
1178 
1874 
1472 


1533 

1840 
5567 
2750 


15708 
18849 
21991 
23562 



Shop Names foe Boiler Braces. — 1. Gusset brace (fig. 47). 
9. Crowfoot brace. 3. Jaw brace (fig. 44). 4. Head to head 
brace (fig. 60). These shop terms refer to braces used in the 
tubular form of boiler. 

A Stat a:n^d a Brace in a steam boiler fulfil the same office, 
that of withstanding the pressure exerted outward of the ex- 
panded and elastic steam. 

Socket Bolts are frequently used instead of the screw stay 
between the inside and outside plates that form the center 
space. Socket bolts are driven hot the same as rivets. 

The method of bracing with X ^a-rs is considered the best; 
the bars make the flat surface rigid and unyielding even 
before the brace is applied. The braces should be spaced 
about 8 inches apart on the X ^^^^ ^^^ ^ inches from the edge 
of the flange X ^'^ ^^^^ should be 4" X ^"\" X iron and riveted to 
the head or flat surface with ^" rivets spaced 4^ inches apart. 

Hollow Stay Bolts are used in the side of locomotive boil- 
ers at the top of the fire line, to aid the combustion; these are 
ordinarily \\" in diameter. 

The flange of a boiler head ^ thick will amply support 6 
inches from the edge of the flange. 

A radius of 2 inches is ample for bend of flange on the head. 
The lower braces should be started 6 inches above the top row 
of tubes. Braces should be fitted so as to have a straight pull, 
t. e, parallel with the boiler shell. The heads of the boiler 
should be perfectly straight before the braces are fitted in place. 
Gusset brace plates should not be less than 30 inches long and 
14 inches wide. Braces are best made of 1 inch O iron of 
highest efficacy with tensile strength of not less than 68,000 
lbs. to the square inch. 



t04 



Maxims and Instructions. 



POINTS RELATING TO BOILER BRACES. 



I 



I 



Fig. 51 



i 



The riyeted stay shown in Fig. 51, 
consists of a long rivet, passed 
through a thimble or distance piece 
of wrought iron pipe placed between 
plates, to be stayed together, and 
then riveted over in the usual man- 
ner. 



An ingenious device is in use to show when a bolt has broken. 
A small hole is drilled into the head, extending a little way 
beyond the plate, and as experience shows that the fracture 
nearly always occurs next to the outside plate, that is the end 
taken for the bored out head: when the bolt is broken the rush 
of steam through the small hole shows the danger without 
causing serious disturbance. 

Even where the best of iron is used for stay bolts they should 
never be exposed to more than 117th or iVth their breaking 
strength. 

The stays should be well fitted, and each one carefully tight- 
ened, and, as far as possible each stay in a group should have 
the same regular strain upon it — if the " pull " all should come 
on one the whole are liable to give way. 

DiMEiirsiOKS AiTD Shape of Angle and T Ieok. 
ANCLE IRON. ^^ ""''*• 




Fig. 63. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



foS 



POINTS RELATING TO BOILER BRACES. 

The condition of a boiler can be learned by tapping on the 
sheets, rivets, seams, etc., to ascertain whether there are any 
broken stays, laminated places, broken rivets, etc. 








Big. A. 



Big. B. 



Fig. A represents the method of preparing testing pieces of 
boiler plate, for the machines prepared specially to measure 
their elongation before breaking, and also the number of pounds 
they will bear stretching before giving way. Fig. B exhibits 
the same with reference to the brace and other O '^^'^ 



RULES AND TABLES 

FOR DETERMINING AREAS AND CALCULATING THE CONTENTS 
OP STEAM AND WATER SPACES IK THE STEAM BOILER.* 

To make these calculations, a circle should be drawn repre- 
senting the circumference of the head of the boiler, and a line 
drawn across between points, corresponding with the ends of 
the upper row of tubes. Measure carefully that portion of the 
circle which is above these points which are represented by the 
figure in the diagrams and D, and multiply it by one-quar- 
ter of the diameter of the circle. Then measure the length of 
the line 1, 2, multiply it by one-half of the dotted line drawn 
from the center of the circle to the base of the segment, and 
Bubtract this product from the result first obtained. The re- 
mainder will be the area of the segment. 

*We are indebted to W. H. Wakeman, M. E., for this mla. 



ro6 



Maxims and Instructions, 



STEAM AND WATER SPACES. 




Fig. C. 



Fig. D. 



Suppose the circle to be forty- eiglit inches in diameter a.d 
the segment fourteen inches high, the upper part of the cucie 
between 1 and 2 will measure four feet six inches, or in evact 
figures, 54.6875 inches; one-quarter of the diameter of the 
circle is 12 inchesand 54.6875 x;i2=656.35. The straight hne, 
from 1 to 2, we' find to be, say, 4S 75 inches m length, the line 
extending from the center of tJie circle to the segment base is 
10 inches long, half of this is 5.0x43.75=218.75. 

656—218.75=437.5, 
the area in square inches of the segment. 

To find the area of the larger portion of the circle, the lengtk 
of the line from 1 to 2 must be carefully ascertained and mul- 
tiplied by one-fourth the diameter of the circle. Half the 
length of the straight line from 1 to 2 must then be multiplied 
by one-half the dotted line, the product added to the figures 
already obtained, and the result will be the area of the larger 
portion of the circle. Special care must be bestowed on the 
measurement of the curved lines, as a mistake of a fraction of 
an inch will throw the calculations out. 



For the following valuable tables we are indebted to success- 
ive numbers of that unique and instructive journal, the LocO' 
motive. 



Maxims and Instructions. toy 

TABLES FOR CALCULATING NUMBER OF STAYS. 

The accompanying tables will greatly facilitate the calcu- 
lation of the number of braces required in a boiler that is to 
run under any given pressure. They contain the results of 
long experience on the subject, and can be relied upon to give 
perfectly satisfactory results. 

It has teen shown hy direct experiment that the tubes pos- 
sess sufficient holding power to amply stay the part of the head 
to which they are attached, and we may safely consider that 
they will also possess sufficient staying power to take care of 
the head /or two {2) inches above their upper surfaces. 

The flanges of the heads being securely united to the shell, 
and being also curved or dished, it may likewise be safely as- 
sumed that no braces need be provided for thai 'part of the head 
which lies ivithin three (3) inches of the shell. The part to be 
braced, therefore, consists of a segment of a circle whose cir- 
cumference lies three inches within the circle of the shell, and 
whose base is two inches above the upper row of tubes. 

Thus in a 66-inch boiler, whose upper row of tubes is 26 
inches below the top of the shell, the part of the head that 
requires bracing consists in a segment of a circle, the diameter 
of which is 60 inches, and the height of which is 21 inches ; 
21 inches being the measured height (26 in.), minus the 3 
inches that lies between the shell and the segment to be braced, 
and minus the two inches that lies between this segment and 
the top of the tubes. 

Table No. 1 gives the total area in square inches. No. 2, 
areas to be braced. No. 3, number of braces of one inch 
round iron required, allowing sefen thousand five hundred 
pounds per square inch of section at one hundred pounds 
steam pressure. 

Table 3 will be found of more practical use than Table 
2, for it gives directly the number of braces required in any 
given boiler, instead of the area to be braced. It was calcu- 
lated from Table 2. The iron used in braces will safely stand 



io8 



Maxims and Instructions^ 



TABLES FOR CALCULATING NUMBER OF STAYS. 
a continiious pull of 7:,500 pounds to the square inch, whicb, 
is the figure used in computing the foregoing table. A round 
brace an inch in diameter has a sectional area of .7854- of an 
inch, and the strain that it will safely withstand is found by 
multiplying .7854 by 7,500, which gives 5,890 pounds as the 
safe working strain on a brace of one-inch round iron. 

In a 60-inch boiler, whose upper tubes are 28 inches be- 
low the shell, the . area to be braced is, according to table, 
^,930 square inches. If the pressure at which it is to be run 
is 100 pounds to the square inch, the entire pressure on the 
area to be braced will be 93,000 pounds, and this is the 
strain that must be withstood by the braces. As one brace 
of inch-round iron will safely stand 5,890 pounds, the boilei 
will need as many braces as 5,890 is contained in 93,000, 
which is 15.8. That is, 16 braces will be required. The 
table is made out on the basis of 100 lbs. pressure to the square 
inch, because that is a very convenient number. 



Table No. 1. TOTAL AREA ABOVE TUBES OR FLUES. 
(Square Inches.) 





DIAMETER OF BOILER IN INCHES. 




Height from 














Height from 


tubes to 
shell. 


36 


43 


48 


54 


60 


66 


72 


tubes to 
shell. 


15 


389 














15 


16 


419 














16 


17 


458 


526 












17 


18 




566 


620 


667 








18 


19 




608 


667 


720 








19 


20 




650 


714 


770 


824 






20 


21 






756 


824 


882 






21 


22 






808 


878 


937 






22 


23 








930 


996 


1059 




23 


24 








982 


1056 


1121 




24 


25 








1037 


1116 


1184 




25 


26 








1090 


1209 


1252 


1324 


26 


27 








1145 


1234 


1316 


1394 


27 


28 










1391 


1381 


1465 


28 


29 










1352 


1445 


1536 


29 


30 










1414 


1511 


1608 


30 


31 












1576 


1674 


31 


32 












1641 


1746 


32 


83 














1818 


33 


84 














1896 


34 



Maxims and Instructions. 



log 



TABLES FOR CALCULATING NUMBER OF BRACES. 
Table 3. AREAS TO BE BRACED (Square Inches.) 



Height from 


DIAMETER OF BOILER IN INCHES. 


Height trom 


tubes to 
















tubes to 


Bhell. 


86 


42 


48 


fA 


60 


66 


72 


shell. 


15 


206 














15 


16 


235 














16 


17 


264 


297 












17 


18 




831 


365 


896 








18 


19 




816 


404 


439 








19 


20 




401 


444 


483 


619 






20 


21 






485 


528 


568 






21 


88 






626 


574 


618 






22 


23 








620 


668 


714 




28 


24 








667 


720 


769 




24 


25 








714 


772 


825 




26 


26 








761 


824 


883 


087 


26 


27 








809 


877 


940 


998 


27 


28 










930 


998 


1061 


28 


29 










983 


1056 


1124 


29 


80 










1037 


1115 


1187 


80 


81 












1174 


1252 


81 


82 












1334 


1317 


82 


83 














1383 


83 


84 














1447 


84 



Table 8. NUMBER OF BRACES REQUIRED, AT 100 LBS. 
PRESSURE. 





DIAMETER OF BOILER IN INCHES. 




Height from 












Hfiipht fr^IB 


tubes to 
















tubes to 


shelL 


86 


4a 


48 


64 


60 


00 


T8 


BhelL 


16 


8.5 














15 


16 


4.0 














16 


17 


4.5 


5 












17 


18 




5.6 


6.2 


6.7 








18 


19 




6.3 


6.9 


7.5 








19 


20 




6.8 


7.5 


8.3 


8.9 






20 


21 






8.2 


9.0 


9.6 






21 


23 






8.9 


9.8 


10.5 






23 


23 








10.5 


11 3 


13.1 




23 


24 








11.3 


12.3 


13.1 




24 


26 








13.1 


13.1 


14.0 




25 


26 








12.9 


14.0 


15.0 


16.9 


26 


27 








13.7 


14.9 


16.0 


16.9 


27 


28 










15.8 


16.9 


18.0 


28 


29 










16.7 


17.9 


19.1 


89 


80 










17 6 


18.9 


20.3 


80 


31 












19.9 


21.3 


81 


83 












21.0 


22.4 


83 


83 














23.5 


8f 


84 














A ' 


84 



JIO 



Maxims and Instructions, 



BOILER TUBES. 
In Table 2 this calculation has been made for all sizes of 
boilers that are ordinarily met with. The area to be braced 
has been calculated as above in each case, the two-inch strip 
aboYG the tubes, and the three-inch strip around the shell be- 
ing taken into account. As an example of its use, let us 
suppose that upon measuring a boiler we find that its diam- 
eter is 54 inches, and that the distance from the upper 
tubes to the top of the shell is 25 inches. Then by looking 
in the table under 54" and opposite 25" we find 714, which is 
the number of square inches that requires staying on each 
head. 



BOILER TUBES. 
Table. 
Dimensions of Lap Welded Boiler Tubes, 



Size outside 
diajneter. 


Wire Guage. 


Weight per 
foot. 


Size outside 
j diameter. 


Wire Gauge. 


Weight per 
foot. 


1 inch. 


15 


0.708 


31- inches. 


11 


4.272 


li '' 


15 


0.9 


,3f - 


11 


4.590 


H '' 


14 


1.250 


;4 


10 


5.320 


If - 


13 


1.665 


ki - 


10 


6.010 


2 " 


13 


1.981 


5 


9 


7.226 


2i ^' 


13 


2.238 


6 


8 


9.346 


2i- 


12 


2.755 


7 


8 


12.435 


2f - 


12 


3.045 


8 


8 


15.109 


3 '' 


12 


3.333 


9 


n 




3i - 


11 


3.958 


10 '' 


64 





The above is the regular manufacturers' list of sizes and 
weights. 

Note* 

Boiler tubes are listed and described from the outside diame- 
ter. This should be noted, as gas- pipe is described from the 
inside diameter. Thus a 1-inch gas-pipe is nearly 1^ outside 
diameter while a 1-inch boiler tube is exactly one inch. Another 
difference between the two consists in the fact that the outside 
of boiler tubes is rolled smooth and eyen, gas-pipe is left com- 
paratively rough and uneven. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



Hi 



BOILER TUBES. 
When the boiler tubes are new and properly expanded there 
is a large reserve or surplus of holding power for that part of 
the tube sheet supported by them, this has been proved by ex- 
periment made by chief engineer W. H. Stock, U. S. N. as 
shown in the following 



Table of Holdikg Power of Boiler Tubes. 



0« «M 



Inches. 

2t 
2t 



o-2o 

(U Of PJ 
M CDT3 

< 9, 



Sq. ins. 

.981 
.981 
.981 
.981 
.981 



PI Pt 



Indies. 



tV 



o 
Pt 



Pounds. 

22650 
22150 
25526 
29675 
13050 



Metliod of Fastening. 



Expanded by Dudgeon tool, end 

riveted over. 
Expanded by Dudgeon tool, end 

partly riveted over. 
Expanded by Dudgeon tool, end 

riveted over. 
Expanded by Dudgeon tool, fer- 

ruled, not ri v^eted over. 
Simply expanded by Dudgeon 

tool. 



Mr. C. B. Eichards, consulting engineer at Colt's Armory at 
Hartford, Conn., made some experiments as to the holding 
power of tubes in steam boilers, with the following results: 
The tubes were 3 inches in external diameter, and 0.109 of an 
inch thick, simply expanded into a sheet f of an inch thick by 
a Dudgeon expander. The greatest stress without the tubes 
yielding in the plate was 4,500 pounds, and at 5,000 pounds 
was drawn from the sheet. These experiments were repeated 
with tbe ends of the tubes which projected through the sheet 
three-sixteenths of an inch, being flared so that the external 
diameter in the sheet was expanded to 3.1 inches. The great- 
est stress without yielding was 18,500 pounds ; at 19,000 pounds 
yielding was observed ;and at 19,500 pounds it was drawn from 
the sheet. The force was applied paralled to the axis of the 
tube, and the sheet surfaces were held at right angles to the 
^be axis. 



tI2 Maxims and Instructions, 

BOILER TUBES. 
Note. 

Wlien the tube sheet and tube ends near the the sheet become 
coated with scale or the tubes become over heated, the holding 
power of the tubes becomes largely reduced and caution must 
be used in having the tube ends re-expanded and accumulated 
scale removed. 

Note. 2 — In considering the stress or strain, upon the expan- 
ded or riveted over ends of a set of boiler tubes it may be re- 
membered that the strain to be provided against is only that 
coming upon tube plate, exposed to pressure, between the tube 
ends — ^the space occupied by the tubes has no strain upon it. 

The gauge to be employed by inspectors to determine the 
thickness of boiler plates, will be any standard American gauge 
furnished by the Treasury Department. 

All samples intended to be tested on the Eiehle, Fairbanks, 
Olsen, or other reliable testing machine, must be prepared in 
form according to the following diagram, viz: eight inches in 
length, two inches in width, cut out at their centers as indica- 
ted. 




Fig. E. 

Portions of the Marine Boiler which Become Thin 

BY Wear. 
These are generally situated, 1st, at or a little above the line 
of fire bars in the furnace; 2d, the ash pits; 3d, combustion 
chamber backs; 4th, shell at water line; 5th, front and bottom 
of boiler. 

The thinning can usually be detected by examination, sound- 
ing with a round nosed hammer, or drilling small holes in 
inspected parts not otherwise accessible for e:3^aminatio4. 



Maxims and Instrtutiom. 



"3 



EXAMPLES OF 
CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING 

The small table at the left is of use in this 
and the four succeeding pages ; in all places 
in the drawings where '' d" is used it indi- 
cates tlie diameter of the rivet; /'t" means 
the tUchness of the plate; *'p" stauds for 
pitch. The table also shows the proportion 
of rivet to the plate— thus, a J inch plate 
requires a h rivet, etc. 

It is recommended, in view of the in- 
creased disposition on the part of official examiners to test the 
applicant's knowledge of drawing, for any one interested , to 
redraw to afv.ll size all the rivets, plates, and methods of join- 
ing the two contained on pages 113-116. 



«r 


# 


^ 


t 


fA 


^4 


% 


s/i 


^>/>s 


S//6 


yy/6 


^/^ 


'A: 


j/s 


/Vi9 


r/? 


^_ 


J^ 


^'/J6 





d = DIAM. OF RIVET. 
e=THICKNESS OF PLATE. 




Kg. sa 



PAN HEAO 

Fig. 54. 



The figures 53 to 60 will be understood without much expla- 
nation. 

In figures 53 and 54 the cup heady the conical head and pan 
head rivets are shown. 

Figs. 55 and 56 exhibit the details (and drawings) of single 
and double riveting. Where the cut reads p=2|d, it means 
that that the distance from the center of one rivet to the cen- 
ter of the next shall be 2|- the diameter of the rivet, see ex- 
ample, page 115. 



114 



Maxims and Instructions. 



CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. 




Fig. 65. 




Fig, 66, 



Maxims and InstrucHons* 



'^5 



CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. 



Example. 

If tlie size of the rivet used is fths, then f X2J=2A inches 
nearly, and this gives the proportionate strength of the plate 
and the rivet, see page 113. 



COMBINED LAP AHD m},m, , , . ,^ 




GOWPLETE THE PLAN. 






^../i^/^. I ^^^^ .....^.^. .v^i -xf <^ )^<id^ ^ 



I «! 

: r 






-<.-- 








J^,^ 



1 


I 


1 


1 


^1' 


1 


7^^ 


1 




1 


^^% 


\ .V- 



Fig. 57. 



Figs. 57, 58, 59 and 60 show quite clearly the joints and rivet 
work done in locomotive and marine work. Fig. 60 i^hows 
method of riveting 3 plates, A, B, and 0, together. 



ii6 



Maxims and Instrtictzons. 



CONSTRUCTION AND DRAWING. 



SECTION AT A B. 



^^.^ 



SECTION AT C D. 




Fig. 58. 



Fig. 59. 



^SECTION AT E F. 











Fig. 60. 



Maxims and Instructions. iff 

'- - • _ — p.|. 

RULE FOR SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURE. 

The safe internal pressure on cylindrical shells is found 
according to the following rule, which has been adopted by the 
United States Board of Supervising Inspectors, and any boiler 
shell not found in the tables can be determined by this rule. 

Rule. — Multiply one-sixth of the lowest tensile strength 
found stamped on any plate in the cylindrical shell by the 
thickness — expressed in inches or parts of an inch — of the 
thinnest plate in the same cylindrical shell, and divide by the 
radius or half diameter — also expressed in inches — and the re- 
sult will be the pressure allowable per square inch of surface 
for single- riveting, to which add twenty per centum for double 
riveting. 

The hydrostatic pressure applied, under this table and rule, 
must be in the proportion of one hundred and fifty pounds to 
the square inch, to one hundred pounds to the square inch of 
the working pressure allowed. 



Example. 

What pressure should be allowed to be carried on a boiler 60" 
diameter, made of plates f '' thick, having a tensile strength of 
60,000 pounds ? Now then: 

6)60,000. 





10,000 
3 




8)30,000 


Half diam. 


30)3750(125 lbs.— if single riveted. 
30 




75 
60 




150 125+25 lbs. (20 feet) =150 for 
150 double riveted. 



11$ 



Maxims and Instructions, 



TABLES SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURE. 

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Maxims and Instructions, 



119 



TABLES SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURE. 

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TABLES SAFE INTERNAL PRESSURE. 






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Maxims and Instructions. t2t 

DEFINITIOK OF TERMS. 

In the accompanying sections, some of the properties of iron 
and steel, as employed in the construction of boilers, are given. 
It is, therefore, desirable that the meanings applied to the vari- 
ous terms used should be clearly understood. The definitions 
necessary are, then, briefly as follows : — 

Tensile Strength is equivalent to the amount of force 
which, steadily and slowly applied in a line with the axis of the 
test piece, just overcomes the cohesion of the particles, and 
pulls it into separate parts. 

Contraction of Area is the amount by which the area, 
at the point where the specimen has broken, is reduced below 
what it was before any strain or pulling force was applied. 

Elongation is the amount to which the specimen stretches, 
between two fixed points, due to a steady and slowly applied 
force, which pulls and separates it into parts. Elongation is 
made up of two parts ; one due to the general stretch, more or 
less, over the length ; the other, due to contraction of area at 
about the point of fracture. 

Shearing" strength is equivalent to the force which, if 
steadily and slowly applied at right angles, or nearly so, to the 
line of axis of the rivet, causes it to separate into parts, which 
slide over each other, the planes of the surface at the point of 
separation being at right angles, or nearly so, to the axis of the 
rivet. 

Elastic limit is the point where the addition to the per- 
manent set produced by each equal increment of load or force, 
steadily and slowly applied, ceases to be fairly uniform, and is 
suddenly, after the point is reached, increased in amount. It 
is expressed as a percentage of the tensile strength. 

Tongh. — The material is said to be " tough" when it can 
be bent first in one direction, then in the other, without frac- 
turing. The greater the angles it bends through (coupled with 
the number of time it bends), the tougher it is. 

Dnctile. — The material is *' ductile '* when it can be ex- 
tended by a pulling or tensile force and remain extended after 
the force is removed. The greater the permanent extension, 
the more ductile the material. 



/^^ Maxims and Instructions. 

DEFINITION OF TERMS. 

Elasticity is that quality in a material by which, after be- 
ing stretched or compressed by force, it apparently regains its 
original dimensions when the force is removed. 

Fatigued is a term applied to the mate] ial when it has 
lost in some degi'ee its power of resistance to fracture, due to 
the repeated application of forces, more particularly when the 
forces or strains have varied considerable in amount. 

Malleable is a term applied to the material when it can be 
extended by hammering, roliing, or otherwise, without fractur- 
ing, and remains extended. The more it can be extended with- 
out being fractured, the more malleable it is. 

Weldable is a term applied to the material if it can be 
united, when hot, by hammering or pressing together the 
heated parts. The nearer the properties of the material, after 
being welded, are to what they were before being heated and 
welded, the more weldable it is. 

Cold-short is a name given to the material when it cannot 
be worked under the hammer or by rolling, or be bent when 
cold without cracking at the edges. Such a material may be 
worked or bent when at a great heat^ but not at any tempera- 
ture which is lower than about that assigned to dull red. 

Hot-short is when the material cannot be easily worked 
under the hammer, or by rolling at a red-heat at any tempera- 
ture which is higher than about that assigned to a red-heat, 
without fracturing or cracking. Such a material may be 
worked or bent at a less heat. 

Homogeneous describes a material which is all of the 
same structui*e and nature. 

A homogeneous material is the best for boilers, and it should 
be of suitable tensile strength with contraction of area and 
elongation best suited for the purpose, having an elastic limit 
that will insure the structure being reliable ; it should be tough 
and ductile, and its elasticity fairly good, and be capable of 
enduring strains without becoming too quickly or easily fatigued. 
The material should be malleable and in some cases weldable ; 
that which is of a decidedly cold-short or hot-short nature 
should be avoided. 



Maxims and InstrMctions. 



123 



BOILER KEPAIRS. 
01 





This cufc represents a form of 
clamp used in holding the 
plates against each other when 
being riyeted. 



Fig. 66. 

Fig. 67 represents a peculiar form of bolt for screw- 
ing a patch to a boiler. It is threaded into the 
boiler plate, the champer rests against the patch 
and the square is for the application of the 
wrench. After the bolt is well in place, the 
head can be cut off with a cold chisel. 



REPAIEINa CRACKS. 

Cracks in the crown-sheet or side of a fire-box boiler, or top 
head of the upright boiler can be temporarily repaired by a row 
of holes drilled and tapped touching one another, with f or -J 
inch copper plugs or bolts, screwed into the plates and after- 
wards all hammered together. 

For a permanent job, cut out the defect and rivet on a patch. 
This had better be put on the inside, so as to avoid a *' pocket '' 
for holding the dirt. In putting on all patches, the defective 
part must be entirely removed to the solid iron, especially when 
exposed to the fire. 

Note.— When fire comes to two surfaces of any consider- 
able extent, the plate next to the fire becomes red-hot and 
weakens, hence the inside plate, in repairs, must be removed. 

The application of steel patches to iron boilers is injudicious. 
Steel and iron differ structurally and in every other particular, 
and their expansion and contraction under the influence of 
changing temperatures, is such that trouble is sure to result 
from their combination. 



1^4 



Maxims and Instructions. 



DEFECTS AND NECESSARY REPAIRS. 




Fig. 68. 
heated and expanded tubes. 



Fig. 68 represents a patch called 
a ** spectacle piece.'" This is used 
to repair a crack situated between 
the tube ends. These are usually 
caused (if the metal is not of bad 
quality) by allowing incrustation 
to collect on the plate inside the 
boiler, or by opening the furnace 
and smoke doors, thus allowing a 
current of cold air to contract the 
metal of the plates round the 



The *' spectacle piece 'Ms bored out to encircle the tabes 
adjacent to the crack, or in other words, to be a duplicate of 
a portion of the tube plate cracked. These plates are then 
pinned on to the tube covering the crack. 

Steam generators, as they are exposed to more or less of try- 
ing service in steam production develop almost an unending 
number and variety of defects. 

When a boiler is new and first set up it is supposed to be clean, 
inside and out, but even one day's service changes its condition ; 
sediment has collected within and soot and ashes without. 

Unlike animals and plants they have no recuperative powers 
of their own — whenever they become weakened at any point the 
natural course of the defect is to become continually worse. 



In nothing can an engineer better show his true fitness than 
in the treatment of the beginnings of defects as they show 
themselves by well known signs of distress, such as leaks of 
water about the tube ends, and in the boiler below the water 
line, or escaping steam above it. In more serious cases, the 
professional services of a skillful and honest boiler maker is the 
best for the occasion. 



Maxims and Instructions, J2^ 

DEFECTS AND NECESSARY REPAIRS. 
In a recent report given in by the Inspectors the following 
list of defects in -boilers coming nnder their observation was re- 
ported. The items indicate the nature of the natural decay to 
which steam boilers in active use are exposed. The added col- 
umn under the heading of ^' dangerous" carries its own lesson, 
urging the importance of vigilance and skill on the part of the 
engineer in charge. 

Nature of Defects. Whole Number. Dangerous. 

Cases of deposit of sediment 419 36 

Cases of incrustation and scale 696 44 

Oases of internal grooving 25 16 

Cases of internal corrosion 139 21 

Cases of external corrosion 347 114 

Broken and loose braces and stays 83 50 

Settings defective 129 14 

Furnaces out of shape 171 14 

Fractured plates 181 84 

Burned plates 93 31 

Blistered plates 232 22 

Cases of defective riveting 306 34 

Defective heads 36 20 

Serious leakage around tube ends ...... . 549 57 

Serious leakage at seams 214 53 

Defective water gauges 128 14 

Defective blow-offs 45 9 

Cases of deficiency of water 9 4 

Safety-valves overloaded 22 7 

Safety-valves defective in construction . . 41 16 

Pressure-gauges defective 211 29 

Boiler without pressure-gauges 3 

This list covers nearly, if not all, the points of danger against 
which the vigilance of both engineer and fireman should be 
continually on guard; and is worth constant study until thor- 
oughly memorized. 

Note. 

Probably one-quarter, if not one-third, of all boiler-work is 
done in the way of repairs, hence the advice of men who have 
had long experience in the trade is the one safe thing to follow 
for the avoidance of danger and greater losses, and for the best 
results the united opinion of 1, the engineer, experienced in 
his own boiler and 2, the boiler-maker with his wider observa- 
tion and 3, the owner of the steam plant, all of whom are most 
interested. 



126 Maxims and Instructions, 

DEFECTS AND NECESSARY REPAIRS. 

Corrosion is a trouble from which few if any boilers escape. 
The principal causes of external corrosion arise from undue ex- 
posure to the weather, improper setting, or possibly damp brick 
work, leakage consequent upon faulty construction, or negli- 
ence on the part of those haying them in charge. 

Internal corrosion may be divided into ordinary corroding, or 

rusting and pitting. Ordinary corrosion is sometimes uniform 
through a large portion of the boiler, but is often found in iso- 
lated patches which have been difficult to account for. Pit- 
ting is still more capricious in the location of its attack ; it may 
be described as a series of holes often running into each other 
in lines and patches, eaten into the surface of the iron to a 
depth sometimes of one- quarter of an inch. Pitting is the 
more dangerous form of corrosion, and the dangers are increased 
when its existence is hidden beneath a coating of scale. There 
IS another form of decay in boilers known as grooving ; it may 
be described as surface cracking of iron, caused by its expansion 
and contraction, under the influence of differing temperatures. 
It is attributable generally to the too great rigidity of the parts 
of the boiler affected, and it may be looked upon as resulting 
from faulty construction. 



n 



\ 



Fig. 69. 



In plugging a leaky tube with a pine plug, make a email 

hole, of -iz of an inch diameter, or less, running through it 
from end to end. These plugs should never have a taper of 
more than \ of an inch to the foot. It is well to have a few 
plugs always on hand. Fig. 69 exhibits the best shape for the 
wooden plug. 



Maxims and Instructions. taf 

QUESTIONS 

BY THE PROPRIHTOR TO THE EIS^GIKEER Iiq" CHARGE, RELAT- 
ING TO CONDITION OF THE BOILER. 

How long since you were inside your boiler? 

Were any of the braces slack ? 

Were any of the pins out of the braces? 

Did all the braces ring alike ? 

Did not some of them sound like a fiddle-string ? 

Did you notice any scale on flues or crown sheet ? 

If you did, when do you intend to remove it ? 

Have you noticed any evidence of bulging in the fire-box 
plates ? 

Do you know of any leaky socket bolts ? 

Are any of the flange joints leaking ? 

Will your safety valve blow off itself, or does it stick a little 
sometimes ? 

Are there any globe valves between the safety valve and the 
boiler ? They shpuld be taken out at once, if there are. 

Are there any defective plates anywhere about your boiler ? 

Is the boiler so set that you can inspect every part of it 
when necessary ? 

If not, how can you tell in what condition the plates are 'i 

Are not some of the lower courses of tubes or flues in your 
boiler choked with soot or ashes ? 

Do you absolutely know, of your own knowledge, that your 
boiler is in safe and economical working order, or do you 
merely suppose it is ? 

QUESTIONS 

ASKED OP A CANDIDATE FOR A MARINE LICENSE RELATING TO 
DEFECTS IN BOILER WITH ANSWERS. 

If you find a thin plate, what would you do ? 
Put a patch oiu 



128 Maxims and Instructions. 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS RELATING TO THE MAEINB 

BOILER. 

Would you put it on inside or outside ? 

Inside. 
Wliy so ? 

Because the action that has weakened the plate will then 
act on the patch, and when this is worn it can be replaced ; but 
the plate remains as we found it. 

If the patch were put on the outside, the action would still 
be on the plate, which would in time be worn through, then 
the pressure of the steam would force the water between the 
plate and the patch, and so corrode it ; and during a jerk or ex- 
tra pressure, the patch might be blown off. 

It is on the same principle that mud-hole doors are on the 
inside. 

K you found several thin places, what would you do ? 

Patch each, and reduce the pressure. 
If you found a blistered plate ? 
Put a patch on the fire side. 
If you found a plate at the bottom buckled ? 

Put a stay through the centre of the buckle. 
If you found seyeral ? 

Stay each, and reduce the pressure. 
The crown of the furnace down ? 

Put a stay through the middle, and a dog across the top. 
If a length of the crown were down, put a series of stays and 
dogs. 

A cracked plate ? 

Drill a hole at each end of the crack ; caulk the crack, or 
put a patch oyer it. 

If the water in the boiler is suffered to get too low, v/hat may 
be the consequence ? 

Burn the top of the combustion chamber and the tubes j 
perhaps cause an explosion. 
If suffered to get too high ? 
Cause priming ; perhaps cause the breaking of the cylin- 
der covers. 



Maxims and Instructions, I2g 



THE INSPECTION" OF STEAM BOILERS. 

Let ifc be clearly understood that if there were no steam 
generators using steam under pressure there ivoiild he no boiler 
inspection, and no licensing of engineers; it requires no license 
to be a machinist or a machine tender, no more would a license 
be essential to run a steam engine, except it were connected 
with the boiler. Tlie danger to the ^uUic arising from their 
use requires that the care and management of high pressure 
steam boilers shall be in hands of careful, experienced and nat" 
urally ingenious men, hence it is on tho affairs of the Boiler 
Eoom that the first tests are made, as to the worthiness of an 
aspirant for an engineer's license, hence too, the success of 
many firemen in obtaining the preference over engine-builders 
or school graduates, in the line of promotion as steam engi- 
neers. 

The inspection laws of the yarious states and cities are 
framed after substantially the same leading ideas, and in 
presenting one the others may be assumed to be nearly the 
same. 

The special province of the Steam Boiler Inspection and 
Engineers' Bureau in the police department in New York 
City is to inspect and test all the steam boilers in the city, 
at certain stated periods, and to examine every applicant 
for f;he position of engineer as to his ability and qualifications 
for running an engine and boiler with safety. 

According to the laws of the State, every owner, agent or 
lessee, of a steam boiler or boilers, in the city of New York, 
shall anually report to the board of police, the location of said 
boiler or boilers, and, thereupon, the officers in command of the 
sanitary company shall detail a practical engineer, who shall 
proceed to inspect such steam boiler or boilers, and all appa- 
ratus and appliances connected therewith. '^ 

When a notice is received from any owner or agent that he 
has one or more boilers for inspection, a printed blank is re- 
turned to him stating that on the day named therein the boiler^ 



1^0 Maxims and Instructions. 



INSPECTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

will be tested, and he is asked to make full preparation for the 
inspection by complying with the following rules ; 

Be ready to Lest at the above named time. 

Have boiler filled with water to safety valve. 

Have \\ inch connection. 

Have steam gauge. 

Steam allowed two-thirds amount of hydrostatic pressure. 

More particularly stated, the following have been adopted by 
one or more Inspection Companies. 

How TO PREPAEB FOR StEAM BoILER IkSPECTIOH. 

1. Haul fires and all ashes from furnaces and ash pits. 

2. If time will permit, allow boiler and settings to cool 
gradually until there is no steam pressure, then allow water to 
run out of boilers. It is best that steam pressure should not 
exceed ten pounds if used to blow water out. 

3. Inside of boiler should be washed and dried through 
m^holes and handholes by hose service and wiping. 

4. Keep safety valves and gauge cocks open. 

5. Take off manhole and handhole plates as soon as possible 
after steam is oat of boiler, that boiler may cool inside 
sufficiently for examination ; also Iceep all doors shut about 
boilers and settings, except the furnace and ash pit doors. 
Keep dampers open in pipes and chimneys, 

6. Have all ashes removed from under boilers, and fire sur- 
faces of shell and heads swept clean. 

7. Have spare packing ready for use on manhole and hand- 
hole plates, if the old packing is made useless in taking off or 
is burned. The boiler attendant is to take off and replace 
these plates. 

8. Keep all windows and doors to boiler room open, after 
fires are hauled, so that boilers and settings may cool q,s 
quickly as t)o^sib>Q 



Maxims and Instructions, Ijr 

INSPECTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

9. Particular attention is called to Rule 5, respecting 
doors — which should be open and which closed— also arrange- 
ment of damper. The importance of cooling the inside of the 
boiler by removal of manhole and handhole plates at the same 
time the outside is cooling, is in equalizing the process of con- 
traction, 

ISSTJINa CERTIFICATES. 

These conditions having been complied with, the boiler is 
thoroughly tested, and if it is deemed capable of doing the 
work required of it, a number by which it shall hereafter be 
known and designated is placed upon it in accordance with the 
city ordinance : Failure to comply with this provision is pun- 
ishable by a fine of $25. A certificate of inspection is then 
given to the owner, for which a fee of |3 is paid. 

This certificate sets forth that on the day named the boiler 
therein described was subject to a hydrostatic pressnre of a cer- 
tain number of pounds to the square inch. The certificate tells 
where the boiler was built, its style or character and '^now 
appears to be in good condition and safe to sustain a working 

pressure of to the square inch. The safety valve has been 

set to said pressure. ^^ A duplicate of this certificate is posted 
in full view in the boiler-room. In case the boiler does not 
stand the test to which it is subject, it must be immediately 
repaired and put in good working order before a certificate will 
be issued. 

THE HYDRAULIC TEST. 

The hydraulic test is a very convenient method of testing 
the tightness of the luorh in a neiu toiler, in conjunction with 
inspection to a greater or lesser degree, in the passing of new 
work. As a detector of leakages it has no rival, and its appli- 
cation enables faulty caulking to be made good before the 
boiler has left the works, and before a leak has time to enter on 
its insidious career of corrosion. The extent to which it en- 
ables the soundness and quality of the work to be ascertained 
is another matter, and depends on several conditions. It will 
be evident that if the test be applied with this object to a new 
boiler, the pressure should range to some point in excess of the 



1^2 Maxims and Instructions. 

INSPECTION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

working load if such a test is to be of any practical value. 

What the excess should be so as to remain within safe limits 
cannot be stated without regard being paid to the factor of 
safety adopted in the structure. 

In addition to the advantage which the hydraulic test affords 
as a means of proving the tightness of the riveted seams and 
work generally, it is also of frequent assistance in determining 
the sufficiency of the staying of flat surfaces, especially when of 
indeterminate shape, or when the stresses thrown upon them 
by the peculiar construction of the boiler are of uncertain mag- 
nitude. For the hydraulic test, however, to be of any real 
value in the special cases to which we refer, it is essential that 
it should be conducted by an expert, and the application of the 
pressure accompanied by careful gaugings, so as to enable the 
amount of bulging and permanent set to be ascertained. With- 
out such readings the application of the test in such cases is 
worthless, and may be delusive. Indeed, the careful gauging 
of a boiler as a record of its behavior should be a condition of 
every test, and is a duty requiring for its adequate performance 
a skilled inspector. 

The duty of inspecting a new boiler or witnessing the hy- 
draulic test properly belongs to one of the regular inspecting 
companies, who have men in their employ specially trained for 
the performance of such work. The advantage accruing from 
such a course is well worth the fee charged for the service, and 
secures a searching inspection of the workmanship, which fre- 
quently brings to light defects and oversights that a mere pump- 
ing-up of the boiler would never reveal. Such a proceeding 
in fact, can only prove that the boiler is water-tight, and a 
boiler may be tight under test although the workmanship is of 
the poorest character. Besides, it is well to bear in mind that 
the tightness of a boiler under test is no guarantee of its tight- 
ness after it is got to work. In a word, as far as new boilers 
are concerned, the ajoplication of hydraulic pressure unaccom- 
panied by careful inspection and guagings may be almost worth- 
less, while with these additions it may be extremely valuable, 
especially in the case of boilers of peculiar shape, and is a pre- 
caution that should not be neglected. 



Maxims and Instructions, ijj 



ENGINEEES' EXAMIN'ATlOJSrS. 

Keeping in mind the fact that if there were no steam-boilers 
there would le no examinations and no public necessity for 
licenses, these ^* points'' are added. 

Examinations are trying periods with all engineers, as the 
best are liable to fail in their answers from a nervous dread of 
the ordeal, but the granting of the document is yery largely 
influenced by the personal experience of the candidate in the 
practical duties of the engine and boiler room, which must be 
stated and certified to by the evidence of others. 

A general "knowledge of the suhject of steam engineering is the 
first requisite to success, A few sample questions are here given 
to show the ordinary course pursued by examiners to determine 
the fitness of applicants: 

How long have you been employed as an engineer, and where ? Are 
f ou a mechanic ? Where did you learn your trade ? Give some idea 
of the extent of your experience as an engineer ? What kind of boil- 
r^rs have you had charge of? Describe a horizontal tubular boiler. 
Describe a locomotive style boiler. Describe a vertical style boiler. 
Describe a sectional water tube boiler. How thick is the iron in the 
ishell of your boiler ? How thick should it be in the shell of your 
boiler ? How thick are the Leads m your boiler ? How thick should 
they be in your boiler? How are the heads fastened to the shell? 
What is the best way to put heads in a boiler ? How is the shell riv- 
cteci? What size rivets are used? What distance apart are they? 
How should the shell be riveted ? Why do they double rivet some 
seams? What ones are best double riveted? How is a horizontal 
boiler braced ? How is a locomotive boiler braced ? What is the size 
of and forms of braces generally used ? Wnat is the size of your boil- 
er or boilers, length and diameter ? How many have you in charge ? 
Name the horse-power. How many tubes are in the boiler ? What 
size are they, and how thick? How long are they? How are they 
secured ? What is the difference between a socket and a stay bolt ? 
What is the tensile strength of Boiler Iron? What is the tensile 
strength cf Boiler Steel? What is mild steel? What is CH No. 1 
Iron? What is Flange Iron? What is Hot Short and Cold Short 
Iron? What is the common dimensions of a Man Hole? What is it 
for? What are Hand Holes for? Do you open them often ? Plow 
often? What are Crown Bars and where are they used? How is a 
poller Caulked? What is a Drift Piii? 



IJ4 Maxims and Instructions. 



MECHANICAL STOKERS. 

In the back counties of England for many genoxations before 
the steam engine was eyolyed from the brains of Trevethick, 
Watt and Stephenson, the word ^^ stoke ^^ was used, meaning to 
''stir the fire/^ The word was derived from an ancient word, 
stoko, meaning a stick, stock or post. 

To-day there are very many men who are called '''stokers,'" 
employed principally on locomotive engines, steam vessels, etc., 
and then there is the ''stoke-hole,^' so-called, in which they do 
their work. 



But, now comes the "mechanical stoker,'^ which is well, 
named, as its office is to feed and " stir the fire " by a machine, 
thus relieving the fireman from much excessively hard toil and 
allowing the time and energy thus saved to be more profitably 
used elsewhere. The figure shows a view of the American 
Stoker which is a device of the most advanced type. 

The principal parts of the machine are : ], the Hopper, 
which may be filled either by hand shoveling or by elevating 
and conveying machinery; 2, the Conveyor Screw, which 
forces the coal, or indeed, any description of fuel, forward to 
the, 3, Magazine, shown in the figure to the left ; 4, a Driving 
Mechanism, which is a steam motor arranged conveniently in 
front of the hopper ; 5, the Eetort, so called from its being the 
place (above the conveyor) where the coal is distilled into gas. 



Note. - An illustrated printed description of tliis machine is issued 
and sent free upon appUcation by the makers, The American Stoker 
Co. , Washington Life Building, Cor. Broadway and Liberty St. , New 
York, 



Maxims and Instructions. ij£ 

MECHANICAL STOKERS. 

The rate of feeding coal is controlled by the speed of the 
motor, this being effected by the simple means of throttling 
the steam in the supply pipe to the motor. The shields cover- 
ing the motor effectually protect the mechanism from dirt and 
dust. The motor has a simple reciprocating piston ; its piston 
rod carries a crosshead, which, by means of suitable connecting 
links, operates a rocker arm having a pawl mechanism, which 
'in, turn actuates the ratchet wheel attached to the conveyor 
shaft. The stoker is thus entirely self-contained and complete 
in itself. 

A screw conveyor or worm is located in the conveyor pipe 
and extends the entire length of the magazine. Immediately 
beneath the conveyor pipe is located the wind box, having an 
opening beneath the hopper. 

At this point is connected the piping for the air supply, 
furnished at low pressure by a volume blower. The other end 
of the wind-box opens into the air space between the magazine 
and outer casing. The upper edge of the magazine is 
surrounded by tuyeres, or air blocks, these being provided with 
openings for the discharge of air, inwardly and outwardly. 

The stoker rests on the front and rear bearing bars ; the 
space between the sides of the stoker and side walls is filled 
with iron plates, termed ^^dead grates.''^ Steam is carried to 
the motor by a f-inch steam, pipe. The exhaust steam from 
the motor is discharged into the ash pit. 

In operation the coal is fed into the hopper, carried by the 
conveyor into the magazine, which it fills, ^^ overflows^' on both 
sides, and spreads upon the sides of the grates. The coal is 
fed slowly and continuously, and, approaching the fire in its 
upward course, it is slowly roasted and coked, and the gases 
released from it are taken up by the fresh air entering through 
the tuyeres, which explodes these gases and delivers the coal as 
coke on the grates above. The continuous feeding gives a 
breathing motion to this coke bed, thus keeping it open and 
free for the circulation of air. 

It will be noted that in this machine the fuel is introduced 
from the bottom of the bed of fuel, technically speaking, upon 
the principle of ^' underfeeding." 



Ij6 Maxims and Instructions, 

CHEMICAL TEKMS 

AND EXPLAKATIONS EELATIKG TO FEED WATERS. 

Chenfiistry is a science whicli investigates the composition 
and properties of material substances. 

Nature is composed of elementary elements ; knowledge of 
these bodies, of their mutual combinations, of the forces by 
which these combinations are brought about, and the laws in 
accordance with which these forces act, constitute chemistry, and 
the chemistry of steam engineering largely deals with the for- 
eign bodies contained in the feed water of steam boilers. 

ElemenU In general, the word element is applied to any 
substance which has as yet never been decomposed into constitu- 
ents or transmuted to any other substance, and which differs in 
some essential property from every other known body. The 
term simple or undecomposed substance is often used synony- 
mously with element. 

There are about 70 simple elements, three quarters of which 
are to be met with only in minute quantities and are called rare 
elements. Copper, silver, gold, iron, and sulphur are simple 
elements — the metal irridium, for example, is a rare ele7nent — 
it is the metal which tips the ends of gold pens — it is heavier 
than gold and much more valuable. Probably there are not two 
tons of it in existence, 

A. He-agent is a chemical used to investigate the qualities 
of some other chemical — example, hydro chloric acid is a 
re-agent in finding carbonic acid in lime stone, or carbonate of 
lime, which when treated by it will give up its free carbonic 
acid gas, which is the same as the gas in soda water. 

An Oxide is any element, such as iron, aluminium, lime, 
magnesia, etc., combined with oxygen. To be an oxdide it 
must pass through the state of oxidation. Iron after it is rusted 
is the oxide of iron, etc. 

A Carbonate is any element, such as iron, sodium, etc., 
which forms a union with carbonic acid — the latter is a mixture 
of carbon and oxygen in the proportion of 1 part of carbon to 
% of oxygen. Carbonic acid, as is well known, does not support 
combustion and is one of the gases which come from perfect 



Maxims and Instructions, j^f 

CHEMICAL TERMS RELATING TO FEED WATER, 
combustion. This acid, or what may be better termed a gas, is 
plentifully distributed by nature and is found principally com- 
bined with lime and magnesia, and in tbis state (?. e,y carbonate 
of lime and carbonate of magnesia) is one of the worst enemies 
to a boiler. 

An Acid is a liquid which contains both hydrogen and 
oxygen combined with some simple element such as chlorine, 
sulphur, etc. It will always turn blue litmus red, and has that 
peculiar taste known as acidity ; acids range in their power 
from the corrosive oil of vitriol to the pleasant picric acid which 
gives its flavor to fruits. 

Alhalies are the opposite to an acid ; they are principally 
potash, soda and ammonia — ^these combined with carbonic acid 
form carbonates. Sal-soda is carbonate of soda. 

A Chloride is an element combined with hydro chlorio 
acid — common salt is a good example of a chloride — ^being sodi- 
um united with the element chlorine, which is the basis of 
hydro chlorio acid. Chlorides are not abundant in nature but 
all waters contain traces of them more or less and they are not 
particularly dangerous to a boiler. 

Sulphates are formed by the action of sulphuric acid 
(commercially known as the oil of vitriol) upon an element, 
such as sodium, magnesia, etc. The union of sodium and sul- 
phurio acid is the well-known glauber salts — this is nothing 
more than sulphate of soda ; sulphate of lime is nothing more 
than gypsum. Sulphates are dangerous to boilers, if in large 
quantities should they give up their free acid — ^the action of the 
latter being to corrode the metal. 

Silica is the gritty part of sand — ^it is also the basis of all 
fibrous vegetable matter — a familiar example of this is the ash 
which shows in packing, which has been burnt by the heat in 
steam ; by a peculiar chemical treatment silica has been made 
into soluble glass — a liquid. 65 per cent, of the earth's crust is 
composed of silica — it is the principal part of rock — pure white 
sand is silica itself — it is composed of an element called silicon 
combined with the oxygen of the air. Owing to its abundance 
in nature and its peculiar solubility it is found largely in all wa- 
ters that come from the earth and is present in all boiler scale. 



Ij8 Maxims and Instructions. 

CHEMICAL TERMS RELATING TO FEED WATER. 

In water analysis the term insoluble matter, is silica. This 
id one of the least dangerons of all the impurities that axe in 
feed water, 

JKagnesia is a fine, light, white powder, having neither 
taste nor smell, almost insoluble in boiling, but less so in cold 
water. Magnesia as found in feed water exists in two states, 
oxide and a carbonate, when in the latter form and free from 
the traces of iron, tends to give the yellow coloring matter to 
scale — in R. R. work, yellow scale is called magnesia scale. 

Carbonate of Magnesia is somewhat more soluble in 
cold than in hot water, but still requires to dissolve it 9,000 
parts of the latter and 2,493 of former. 

Magnesia, in combination with silica, enters largely into the 
composition of many rocks and minerals, such as soapstone, 
asbestos, etc. 

Lime, whose chemical name is calcium, is a white alkaline 
earthy powder obtained from the native carbonates of lime, such 
as the different calcerous stones and sea shells, by driving off 
the carbonic acid in the process of calcination or burning. 

Lime is procured on a large scale by burning the stone in 
furnaces called kilns, either mixed with the fuel or exposed to 
the heated air and flames that proceed from side fires through 
the central cavity of the furnace in which the stones are collected. 

The calcined stones may retain their original form or crum- 
ble in part to powder ; if protected from air and moisture they 
can afterwards be preserved without change. 

Soda is a greyish white solid, fusing at a red heat, volatile 
with difficulty, and having an intense affinity for water, with 
which it combines with great evolution of heat. 

The only reagent which is available for distinguishing its 
salts from those of the other alkalies is a solution of antimoniate 
of potash, which gives a white .precipitate even in diluted solu- 
tions. 

Sodium is the metallic "base of soda. It is silver white with 
a high lustre ; crystallizes in cubes ; of the consistence of wax 
at ordinary temperatures, and completely liquid at 194% and 



Maxims and Instructions. /jp 

CHEMICAL TERMS RELATING TO FEED WATER. 

volatilizes at a bright red lieat. It is very generally diffused 
throughout nature though apparently somewhat less abundantly 
than potassium in the solid crust of the globe. 

Halt, the chloride of sodium, a natural compound of one 
atom of chloride and one of sodium. It occurs as a rock inter- 
stratified with marl, and sandstones, and gypsum, and as an 
element of salt springs, sea water, and salt water lakes. 

The proportions of its elements are 60.4 percent, of chlorine 
and 39.6 percent, of sodium. 

In salt made of sea water the salts of magnesia with a little 
sulphate of lime are the principal impurities. 

The above mentioned chemical substances can be classified 
into two distinct classes, i.e., incrusting and non-incrusting. 

Of the incrusting salts, carbonate of magnesia is the most 
objectionable and any feed v/ater that contains a dozen grains 
per gallon of magnesia can be expected to have a most injurious 
effect on the boiler causing corrosion and pitting. Carbonate 
of lime, while not as bad as the magnesia carbonate, yet has a 
very destructive action on a boiler and 20 grains per gallon of 
this is considered bad water. All silicates, oxides of iron, and 
aluminium, and sulphate of lime are also incrusting. The 
non-incrusting substances are three, viz., chloride of sodium 
(common salt), and sulphate and carbonate of soda. 

KOTE. 

In view of the increasing importance laid upon a knowledge 
of the chemical formation cf feed water, these chapters of 
Chemical Terms and Analysis of Feed Waters are given to 
indicate tlie direction in ichich the advanced engineer must push 
his inquiries. There are more millions of treasure to be made 
by properly '* treating ^^ the water which enters the steam gen- 
erators of the world than can be extracted from its gold mines. 

An important " point " is to make sure, before adopting any 
permanent system for purifying the waters of a steam plant, 
that it is always the same in its ingredients, i. e, that the 
impurities pont^ined in the water are the game at all times. 



t^O Maxims and Instructions, 



ANALYSIS OF FEED WATER. 

In response to a generous offer made by a leading engineering 
journal, the following compositions of feed water were ascer- 
tained and published. The ^'Directions'* show how the water 
was forwarded, and the tables the result of careful examination 
of samples sent from widely separated sections of the country. 

DiEECTIOKS. 

1. Get a clean gallon jug or bottle and a new cork (or, at all 
events, a thoroughly clean one). 

2. Wash out the vessel two or three times with the same 
water that is going to be sent in it. This is to make sure that 
the sample may not be contaminated with any '^ foreign '* in- 
gredient. 

3. Tie the cork, after the bottle is filled with the water, with 
a strong string or wire. Pack the bottle so secure, with hay or 
straw, sawdust, or newspapers, that it may not knock itself to 
pieces against the sides of the box. 

FBOM AR(K)S, INO. 

Grains per 
Gallon. 

Silica 1.1096 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 1752 

Carbonate of lime 11 . 9010 

Carbonate of magnesia 5.4597 

Carbonate of soda 1 . 1324 

Chloride of sodium 0715 

Total soUds 19.8494 

FROM SIOUX FALLS, S. D. 

Grains per 
Gallon. 
SiUca 8292 

Oxides of iron and aluminium .2452 

Carbonate of lime 9.0699 

Carbonate of magnesia 5 .4376 

Chloride of sodium 1 .7172 

Sulphate of sodium 4. 5245 

Sulphate of lime 2.0976 

Total solids ,...,. 25.093^ 



Maxims and Instructions. i^l 



ANALYSIS OF FEED WATER. 

FROM LITCHFIELD, ILL. Grains per 

Gallon. 

SiHca 4711 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 7475 

Carbonate of lime 3800 

Carbonate of magnesia 2 . 2911 

Chloride of sodium , 8 . 7543 

Sulphate of soda 16.0329 

Sulphate of lime 2.8168 

Total solids 31.4835 

FROM CHELSEA, MASS. Grains per 

Gallon. 

Silica 1168 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 6540 

Carbonate of lime 34.5260 

Carbonate of magnesia 22.8470 

Chloride of sodium 63.2041 

Sulphate of soda 28.4711 

Carbonate of soda 32.2321 

Total solids 182.0511 

FROM MEMPHIS, TENN. Grains per 

Gallon. 

Silica 8292 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 4789 

Carbonate of lime 1.8337 

Carbonate of magnesia 9956 

Carbonate of soda 1 . 9792 

Total solids 6.1166 

FROM PEKiN, ILL. Grains per 

Gallon. 

Silica 1.0628 

Oxides of iron and aluminium Trace 

Carbonate of lime 10.0915 

Carbonate of magnesia 5.8224 

Chloride of sodium Trace 

Sulphate of soda 1,2456 

Total solids. 18.6471 

FROM TIFFIN, OHIO. Grains per 

Gallon. 

SiUca. . . 5256 

Oxides of iron and aluminium. 2336 

Carbonate of lime 12.6144 

Carbonate of magnesia. 10 . 2652 

Carbonate of soda 2.4137 

Sulphate of soda 6.8296 

Chloride of sodium 1 . 0484 

Total solids , . . , 33 . 939$ 



l/f2 ' Maxims and Jnstructwns^ 



OORROSIOH AND IKCRUSTATIOK OF STEAM 
BOILERS. 

No more perplexing question presents itself to the engineer 
and steam user than the one to be inferred from the above 
heading. Enormous losses of money, danger to life and 
property and the loss of position and the reputation of the 
engineer are involved in it. How to avoid these actual evils is 
of the first importance in steam economy. The subject at first 
eight seems to the average student a difficult one to master, but 
like all other matters pertaining to mechanics, investigatiou 
that is backed with reason, will show that much that appears 
obscure is really very plain indeed; this is because nature, even 
down to the sediment remaining in a boiler after the conver- 
sion of water into steam, operates in its formation with infinite 
exactness and along well known lines. 

Question. — What is cov-ooion ? 

Answer. — Corrosion is simply rusting or the wasting away of 
the surfaces of metals, for particulars of which see page 126. 

Question. — What is Incrustation ? 

Answer. — Incrustation means simply a coating over. 

Water, on becoming steam, is separated from the impurities 

which it may have contained, and these form sediment and 

incrustation. 

Boilers corrode on the outside as well as within, and to a 
great extent unless carefully cleaned and painted ; but it is the 
damage caused by ''hard" and accidulated water within the 
boiler that is to be principally guarded against. 

An extreme example of incrustation has been described in 
that of a locomotive type of a stationary boiler. Its dimensions 
were : seventy-two inches in diameter, twenty- two feet long, 
with 153 three-inch tubes ; she> ', three-eighths ; head, three- 
eighths, and made of iron. The scale against the back head 
was nearly two inches thick and completely filled the space 
between the tubes, so that circulation was impossible, the only 
wonder being that the boiler did not give out sooner than it 
finally did. The scale was even with the top row of tubes, the 



Maxims and Instructions, I^J 

CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION OF STEAM BOILERS, 
only part of the boiler generating steam being the fire box and 
the upper row of tubes, the others acting simply as smoke 
conduits. There was certainly a great loss of fuel, quite fifty 
per cent. Had it been a horizontal boiler it; would have burned 
out before the scale became so heavy. 

In the above instance, the loss in fuel is estimated at one- 
half. Careful experiment has proved an average loss of fuel as 
follows : 

1-16 inch of scale causes a loss of 13 per cent of fuel. 



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It must be remembered that dry steam, as it is used through 
the engine or for other purposes, carries muay none of the 
Impurities which pass with the water into the boiler; hence, 
in a battery of boilers burning, say, 20 tons of coal per day and 
evaporating 10 lbs. of water to a pound of coal, there is a body 
of water going through them every day of 200 tons. Multiply 
this by 300 days for a year=60,000 tons, and it will be seen 
how very great is the joroblem of keeping the interior of the 
boilers free from scale and deposit. 

Chemically pure water is that which has no impurities, and 
may be described as colorless, tasteless, without smell, trans- 
parent, and in a very slight degree compressible, and, were a 
quantity evaporated from a perfectly clean vessel, there would 
be no solid matter remaining. 

But, strangely, investigation has proved that water of this 
purity rapidly corrodes iron, and attacks even pure iron and 
steel more readily than *^hard^^ water does, and sometimes 
gives a great deal of trouble where the metal is not homogene- 
ous. Marine boilers would be rapidly ruined by pure distilled 
water if not previously '^scaled'' about 1-32 of an inch. 

"Water is formed by the union of two gases — oxygen and 
hydrogen. These two are simple bodies, formed by the Creator 
in the beginning, which are found in combination in thousands 
of different forms. Both when alone are invisible. Take one 
volume of oxygen and mix it with two volumes of hydrogen 
and they will chemically unite and form water. This is by 



I^ Maxims and Instructions. 

CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION OF STEAM BOILERS. 

measure. By weight water is composed of 88.9 of oxygen 
to 11.1 of hydrogen = 100 parts. See pages 229, 230 for 
further information. 

It is an important point to remember that when water is 
expanded about 1,700 times into steam, it is simply expanded 
water, as ice is hardened water, ^.e., in expanding into steam 
the two constituent gases do not separate. Hence, in dealing 
with the impurities inside the boiler, it is to be observed that 
in no sense do they change the essential nature of water itself. 
The impurities are ^\m.^\j foreign todies, which have no legiti- 
mate place in the boiler, and are to be expelled as dangerous 
foes. As a general principle, it may be stated that it is more 
profitable to soften and filter the water used in boilers than to 
trust fco blowing out or dissolving the sediment and scale that 
will be otherwise formed, for observations show that '^anti- 
incrustators '^ containing organic matter help rather than 
hinder incrustations, and are therefore to be avoided. For the 
remedy of foul water there are numerous contrivances to pre- 
vent it from entering the boiler, which is far better than trying 
to extract the sediment after it is there, though there are many 
ingenious methods for doing that also, some of which will be 
detailed hereafter. 

PRELIMINARY PRECIPITATION OF WATER. 

A good method of avoiding incrustations in steam boilers is 
evidently a preliminary purification of the feed- water, provided 
it can be done by means sufficiently simple. This is a problem 
which it is claimed has been solved by M. Dehne of Halle, by 
means of an arrangement which we will herewith describe. 
The fresh water, which is taken up by a feed pump, is sent 
into a heater where it is raised to a temperature that will be 
favorable to chemical reaction. It then passes into a mixer 
where it encounters certain reacting agents which have been 
pumped in there by a pump of special design. These reacting 
agents are composed of a mixture of carbonate of soda and of 
caustic soda, the carbonate of soda serving to precipitate the 
sulphate of lime contained in the feed-water^ while the caustio 



Maxims and Instructions, t-^S 

CORROSION AND INCRUSTATION OF STE.OI BOILERS. 

soda precipitates the carbonate of lime and the magnesia. The 
relative dimensions between the special pump and the feed pump 
are calculated in such a way that the proportions of carbonate 
of soda and caustic soda in the mixture have always a certain 
relation to the amount of lime and magnesia to be precipitated. 
The water of the mixture is frequently very much disturbed by 
the precipitations which are formed, and passes into a filter 
where all the matters that are held in suspension are retained. 
It then goes into the boiler. In cases where the feed-water is 
taken from a tank, the heater, the mixsr, and filter are put in 
the suction pi])e of the feed pump, but if, as often happens, the 
water is already under pressure and will pass directly through 
the three, the feed pump will take the water directly from the 
filter and pump it directly into the boiler. 

A PEEOIPITATOR FOR SEA WATER. 

It is quite possible to prepare sea water in such a way as to 
practically prevent any serious deposit forming from it. 

The process employed is to add to the sea water a known 
quantity of precipitator powder consisting chiefly of soda ash, 
and having done this in a closed vessel, to heat the mixture by 
blowing into it waste steam, until a pressure of from 51b. to 
lOlbs. is created ; under these circumstances practically all the 
magnesium and calcium salts separate from the water and are 
easily got rid of by filtering it under pressure into the hot-well. 

A precipitator 6 ft. 4 in. high and 3 ft. in diameter, holds a 
ton of water, and the time taken, from the first running the 
sea water in, to its delivery into the hot-well, need not exceed 
1 hour and 15 minutes, so that in practice, giving plenty of 
time between the makes, it would be perfectly easy to prepare 
8 to 12 tons in the 24 hours with a small precipitator of the 
size named. The prepared watir has a density of l-32nd, and 
may with safety be evaporated until its density is 5-32nds, the 
salts present not crystallizing out until a density of from 
6-32nds to 7-32nds is reached. 

In preparing sea water in the way proposed, every precau- 
tion must be taken to add slightly less of the precipitant than 
is necessary to entirely throw down the calcium and magnesium 



I^f6 Maxims and Instrucitons. 

A PRECIPITATOR FOR SEA WATER, 
salts, as it is manifestly impossible in practice to guard against 
small quantities of sea water finding way into the boiler either 
from leaky condensers or else being fed in by the engineer during 
some emergency, and if under these conditions any excess of 
the precipitant were present in the boiler, a bulky precipitate 
would be thrown down and cause trouble, although it would 
not bind into a solid scale. 

Briefly recapitulated the means which are best adapted for 
preventing the formation of the dangerous organic and oily 
deposits considered are : 

I. Filtration of condensed water through a coke column. 

II. Free use of the scum cocks. 

III. The use of water of considerable density rather than 
of fresh water. 

IV. The use of pure mineral oil lubricants in the smallest 
possible quantity. 

SCALE DEPOSITED IK MARINE BOILERS. 

The analysis given below may be looked upon as typical of 

the incrustation formed by fresh water, brackish water and 

sea water respectively in marine boilers : 

Constituent River. Brackish. Sea. 

Calcic carbonate 75.85 43.65 0.97 

" sulphate 3.68 34.78 85.53 

Magnetic hydrate 2.56 434 3.39 

Sodic chloride 0.45 0.56 2.79 

SiUca 7.66 7.53 1.10 

Oxides of iron and alumina. . . 2.96 3.44 0.32 

Organic matter 3.64 1.55 trace 

Moisture 3.20 4.16 6.90 

100.00 100.00 100.00 

Prom this it is evident we may look upon the incrustation from 
fresh water as consisting of impure calcic carbonate, whilst 
that from sea water is impure calcic sulphate, the brackish 
water from the mouths of rivers yielding, as might be expected, 
an incrustation in which both these compounds are present in 
nearly equal quantities. 

The importance of these differences in the deposit formed is 
very great, as it enables the shipowner to arrive at the conclu- 
sion as to the treatment that the boilers have received during 
the voyage, by examination and analysis of the scale that those 



Maxims and Instructions. /// 

SCALE DEPOSITED IN MARINE BOILERS, 
boilers contain. Taking, for instance^ the case of a ship 
which, uses fresh water both for filling and make up, it is man- 
ifest that on her return to port the scale should be yery slight 
and should consist mainly of calcic carbonate, whilst, if the 
scale exceeds 1-16 m., and shows a preponderance of calcic 
sulphate, it is manifest that such scale could only have been 
formed by sea water, either leaking in from faulty condensers 
or being deliberately fed into the boilers. 

With the introduction of high pressure steam a new and 
dangerous form of deposit has added to the trouble of the ma- 
rine engineer; having entered the boiler, the minute globules 
of oil, if in great quantity, coalesce to form an oily scum 
on the surface of the water, or if present in smaller quantities, 
remain as separate drops ; but show no tendency to sink, as 
they are lighter than water. 

Slowly, however, they come in contfycfc with small particles 
of other solids separating from the water and sticking to them, 
they gradually coat the particles with a covering of oil, which 
in time enables the particles to cling together or to the surfaces 
which they come in contact with. These solid particles of 
calcic carbonate, calcic sulphate, etc., are heavier than the 
water, and, as the oil becomes more and more loaded with 
them, a point is reached at which they have the same specific 
gravity as the water, and then the particles rise and fall with 
the convection currents which are going on in the water, and 
stick to any surface with which they come in contact, in this 
way depositing themselves, not as in common boiler incrusta- 
tion, where they are chiefly on the upper surfaces, but quite as 
much on the under sides of the tubes as on top. 

The deposit so formed is a wonderful non-conductor of heat, 
and also from its oily surface tends to prevent intimate contact 
between itself and the water. On the crown of the furnaces 
this soon leads to overheating of the plates, and the deposit 
begins to decompose by heat, the lower layer in contact with 
the hot plates giving off various gases which blow the greasy 
layer, ordinarily only 1-64 inch in thickness, up to a spongy 
leathery mass often 1-3 inch thick, which, because of its pores- 



1^8 Maxims and Instructions, 



SCALE DEPOSITED IN MARINE BOILER&. 
ity is an even bstter non-conductor of heat than before, and 
the plate becomes heated to redness. 

When water attains a temperature, as it does under increas- 
ing pressure, ranging from 175° to about 420° Fahr., all carbon- 
ates, sulphates and chlorides are deposited in the following order: 

First. Carbonate of lime at 17G° and 248° Fahr. 

Second. Sulphate of lime at 248° and 420°. 

Third. Magnesia,or chlorides of magnesium,at 324° and 364°. 

It is to take advantage of this fact that mechanically arranged 
jets, sprinklers and long perforated pipes are introduced into 
the interior of the boiler; these tend to scatter the depositing 
impurities and also to bring the feed water more quickly to the 
highest heat possible. 

With regard to the oxide of iron or iron salts in solution, 
these can best be treated with small quantities of lime. By 
adding re-agenfcs, they set up chemical changes, which result 
in precipitation, which give the water a milky appearance; 
they divide into particles, and ultimately settle, leaving the 
water pure and bright. The mechanical treatment on a limited 
scale would be easy, a settling tank sufficing ; but this becomes 
a different matter when large quantities have to be dealt with. 

ANALYSIS OF AVERAGE BOILER SCALE. 

Parts per 100 parts 
of deposit. 

Silica 042 parts. 

Oxides of iron and aluminium 044 ** 

Carbonate of lime 30.780 " 

Carbonate of magnesia .... 51 .733 '* 

Sulphate of soda Trace " 

Chloride of sodium Trace '* 

Carbonate of soda 9.341 " 

Organic matter 8.060 " 

Totalsolids 100. Parts 

The percentage only of each ingredient the scale is composed 
of is given, as it cannot be told how much water was evaporated 
to leave this amount of solid matter. 



Maxims and Instructions, /^p 



A LOCOMOTIVE-BOILER COMPOUND. 

Tlie lines of a certain great R. R. traverse a country where 
the water is yery hard and they are compelled to resort to some 
method of precipitating the lime that is held in solution. Af- 
ter many tests and experiments they have made a compound 
and use it as follows : in a barrel of water of a capacity of fifty 
gallons they put 21 lbs. of carbonate of soda, or best white soda 
ash of commerce, and 35 lbs. of white caustic soda. The cost, 
per gallon, is about %\ cents. 

The compound is carried in this concentrated form, in calo- 
mine cans on the tender of each locomotive. A certain amount, 
according to the necessities of the case, is poured into the ten- 
der at the water tank at each filling. This amount is deter- 
mined by analysis, and varies all the way from two to fifteen 
pints to two thousand gallons of water. The precipitating 
power of this compound may be taken roughly at f of a pound 
of the carbonate of lime, or equivalent amount of other mate- 
rial, per pint of the compound. On their western lines where 
they are dealing with alkali waters and those containing sul- 
phates, the company use merely 60 pounds of soda ash to a 
barrel of water. When the water is pumped into the boiler the 
heat completes the precipitation and aggregation of the par- 
ticles, and this does away with all trouble of the tenders or in- 
jector tubes clogging up. 

The case is an interesting one to stationary engineers, because 
where the water is pumped into the boiler from tanks the same 
compound can be used, provided the water contains the proper 
constituents to be precipitated by it ; and where the water is 
taken from city water mains, it would be a simple matter to 
devise an apparatus to admit the compound to the feed pipes. 

" Points ^^ Relating to the Scaling of Steam Boilers. 

The peculiarity about the sulphate of lime is that tlie colder 
the water the more of it will he held in solution. Water of ordi- 
nary temperature may hold as high as 7 per cent, of lime sul- 
phate in solution, but when the temperature of the water is 
raised to the boiling point a portion of it is precipitated, leav- 
ing about .5 of one per cent, still in solution. Then as the 



t^o Maxims and Instrtictions, 

POINTS RELATING TO THE SCALING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

temperature of the water is raised, still more of the substance 
is precipitated and this continues until a guage pressure of 41 
pounds has been reached which gives a temperature of about 
200 degrees; at this point all the sulphate of lime has been 
precipitated. Many other scale forming substances act in a 
similar manner. This shows quite plainly that any tempera- 
ture that can be produced by the use of exhaust steam would 
not be sufficient to cause the precipitation of all the substances 
which might be contained in the water. 

That boiler incrustations are the immediate causes of the 
majority of steam boiler explosions is no longer a doubtable 
question. 

Nearly all foreign matter held in solution in water, on first 
becoming separated by boiling, rises to the top in the form of 
tvhat is commonly called scujn, in which condition much of it 
may be removed by the surface blow-off. If not removed, 
however, the heavier particles will be attracted to each other 
until they have become sufficiently dense to fall to the bottom, 
where they will be deposited in the form of scale, covering the 
whole internal surface of the boiler below the water line, with 
a more or less perfect non-conductor of heat. 

It is recorded that the engineer of the French ocean steamer 
St, Laurent omitted to remove a bar of zinc when repairing 
and cleaning out his boilers. On opening the boilers at the 
end of the voyage to his great surprise he found that the zinc 
had disappeared, but his boilers were entirely free from scale 
and the boiler plates not injured in the least. 

It has been recently determined by some German experi- 
menters that sugar effects a strong action upon boilers. It has 
an acid reaction upon the iron which dissolves it with a disen- 
gagement of hydrogen. The amount of damage done increases 
with the amount of sugar in the water. These results are 
worthy of note in sugar refineries and places where sugar some- 
times finds its way into the boilers by means of the water 
supplied. The experimenters in question also find that zinc is 
strongly attacked by sugar ; copper, tin, lead and aluminium 
are not attacked. 



Maxims a7td Instructions. I^I 

POINTS RELATING TO THE SCALING OF STEAM BOILERS. 

Two reasons, relating to incrustations, for not blowing out a 
boiler while under steam pressure may be given as follows : 
One is, that the foreign matter floating on top of the water 
will be deposited on the shell of the boiler as the water gradually 
subsides, and, second, the heated walls of the furnace will com- 
municate a sufficiently high temperature to the boiler to dry 
and flake the sediment that would otherwise remain in the 
boiler in the shape of mud, which could easily be washed out, 
were it not for the baking process. 

Bark, such as is used by tanners, has an excellent effect on 
boiler incrustations. It may be used as follows : Throw into 
the tank or reservoir from which the boilers are fed a quantity 
of bark in the piece, in sufficient quantity to turn the water to 
a light brown color. Repeat this operation every month at 
least, using only half the quantity after the first month. Add 
a very small quantity of the muriate of ammonia, about one 
pound for every 2,000 gallons of water used. This will have 
the effect of softening as well as disintegrating the carbonate of 
lime and other imparities deposited by the action of evaporation. 

XoTE. — Care must be exercised in keeping the bark, as it 
becomes broken up, from the pump valves and blow-off valves. 
This may be accomplished by throwing it into the reservoir 
confined in a sack. 

Among the best samples of boiler compounds ever sent to the 
laboratory for analysis was found to be composed of : 

Pounds. 

Sal soda , 40 

Catichu , . . 5 

Sal ammoniac 5 

This solution was formerly sold at a good round figure, but 
since its nature became more generally known, it is not found 
in market, but is largely used, consumers putting it up in lots 
sufficient to last a year or so at a time. . 

The above is strongly recommended by those who have used 
it, one pound of the mixture heiyig added to each barrel of water 
used, but after the scale is once thoroughly removed from the 



1^2 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO THE SCALING OF STEAM BOILERS. 
boiler, tlie use of sal soda alone is all that is necessary. By tlie 
use of ten pounds per week a boiler 26 feet long and 40 inches 
in diameter in one of the iron mills of New Albany, Ind., has 
been kept clean of scale equal to a new boiler. 

There are other evils sometimes inherent in hard waters over 
and above the mere production of a crust. Some waters con- 
tain a great deal of soluble magnesia salts, together with com- 
mon salt. When this is the case there is a great chance of 
corrosion, for the former is acted on by steam at high pressure 
in such a way that muriatic acid fames are produced, which 
seriously corrodes the boiler, and, what is far worse, passes 
with the steam into the engine, and produces corrosion m the 
cylinders and other delicate fittings into contact with which 
the steam passes. All this can, however, be obviated by the 
removal of tlie magnesia from the water. 

There has not been, and never can be, made a mechanical 
device which will precipitate all the ingredients contained in a 
water taken from a natural source of supply, and if it were possi- 
ble to do so it would be the most ruinous thing one could do for 
the boilers, as water is the greatest solvent known to chemistry, 
and its nature is to hold in solution and be impregnated with 
the different elements it comes in contact with, to a certain 
per cent., and if its lime, magnesia, and the mineral salts are 
taken away, and the pure water is pumped into the boilers, it 
will take up the iron, causing pitting and grooving of the boil- 
ers. It is better to let nature take its course, to a certain extent, 
and neutralize what little mineral deposit forms in the boilers 
with as small an amount of vegetable matter as possible. 

It is well to note that different waters require different treat- 
ment; what will be of benefit in one instance will be of no value 
whatever in a different water, many of the ^' compounds" sold 
to prevent and remove scale will certainly destroy a boiler if 
they are used persistently, because they are composed of the 
exact opposite chemicals which should be used; as an example 
it is stated that at one establishment one thousand dollars were 
expended annually for a mixture which it was said resulted in 
the reduction of the life and usefulness of the boilers of 50 per 
cent. 



Maxims and Instrttctions, /JJ 

ENGINEERS' TESTS 

FOR IMPURITIES I^ FEED WATER. 

Much expense can be saved in fuel and boiler repairs by a 
little preliminary expenditure of money in securing a supply of 
good water for the steam boilers of a new establishment. Well 
water is nearly always inferior to the running water of streams; 
water from mines is especially hurtful, containing, as they do, 
large quantities of free sulphuric acid. Wells along the sea 
shore or on the banks of rivers affected by the tides, are likely 
to be saturated with chloride of magnesium. It is in determin- 
ing these points that these ready tests of feed water are most 
useful. 

A thorough and really scientific analysis of feed water is a 
costly and tedious process, but a simple and perhaps su'ffi,cie7itly 
accurate test may be made as follows: take a large (or tall) clear 
glass vessel and fill it with the water to be tested: add a few 
drops of water of ammonia, until the water is distinctly alkaline: 
next add a little phosphate of soda; the action of this is to 
change the lime, magnesia, etc., into phosphates, in which 
form they are deposited m the bottom of the glass. The 
amount of the matter thus collected gives a crude idea of the 
relative quality of sediment and scale-making material in the 
water. 

Water turning blue litmus paper red, before boiling, contains 
carbonic acid, and if the blue color can le restored hy heatingy 
the water contains carbonic acid. Litmus paper is sold by 
druggists. 

If the water has a foul odor, giving a black precipitate with 
acetate of lead, it is sulphurous. 

An experiment may be tried by dissolving common white or 
other pure soap in a glass of water, and then stirring into the 
glasses of water to be tested a few teaspoonsful of the solution; 
the matter which will be deposited will show the comparative 
amount of the scale- making material contained in the feed 
water. 



1^4 Maxims and Instructions. 



ENGINEERS' TESTS FOR IMPURITIES IN FEED WATER. 

In order to ascertain the proportion of soda to the feed water 
thefolloiving method is recommended : 

1. Add xVth part of an ouace of tlie soda to a gallon of the 
feed water a?id boil it, 2. When the sediment thrown down by 
the boiling has settled to the bottom of the kettle^ pour the 
clear water off, and 3, add J drachm of soda. Now, if the water 
remains clear, the soda, which was first put in, has removed the 
lime, but if it becomes muddy, the second addition of soda is 
necessary. 

In this way a sufficiently accurate estimate of the quantity of 
soda required to eliminate the impurities of the feed water can 
be made and the due proportion added to the feed water. 

By exercising a little judgment, the use of pure chemicals, 
with well cleaned vessels, test tubes, etc., the following 
reagents will determine the character of the most important 
elements which injure the iron surfaces of a steam boiler. 

Carbonic acid is indicated by byrata water. 
Sulphates are indicated by chloride of barium. 
Chlorides are indicated by nitrate of silver. 
Lime salts are indicated by oxalate of ammonia. 
Organic matter is indicated by chloride of mercury. 

The " base " of the better class of the various patented boiler 
compounds is tannin (whence tannic acid) and some form of 
alkali, and if the compounds were to be deprived of these two 
elements they would be absolutely worthless. 

Where they contain, as some certainly do, sal-ammoniac, 
muriatic, hydrochloric and sulphuric acids, they cannot but 
act as boiler destroying agents. 

Tannin or tannic acid is the principal ingredient used in 
preparing leather. It is found in a great variety of plants — 
sassafras root has it in large projDortion, the gall nut and tho 
bark of various trees, especially the oak produce it. 

It is the presence of this acid that gives their only value to 
very many " compounds, ^^ tan bark, gum catechu (which 
sometimes contains one-half part of tannic acid), etc. The 



Maxims and Instructions, t§§ 

ENGINEERS' TESTS FOR IMPURITIES IN FEED WATER 
acid seems to have but little effect where large quantities of 
sulphate of lime are present, but in waters where carbonate of 
lime predominates its detersive qualities are more marked. 

The records of the Patent Office shows that one boiler com- 
pound contains 23 per cent, of catechu, and others 60, 81, 5, 
respectively, by which may be inferred the large quantity of 
this agent, which has been sold in combination with other 
chemicals, principally soda. 

Note. 

While the product of water steeped in clean tan bark may be 
favorable in its action upon boiler incrustation, it has been 
found to he very unsafe, in practice, to use the "tan liquor'* 
taken from the vats. The danger arises from the fact that 
sometimes during the process of tanning leather, the required 
acidity cannot be produced by natural fermentation when sul- 
phuric acid is added, in order to bring the liquor to its required 
strength — in due course, this corrosive substance acts injuri- 
ously on the boiler. 

USE OF petroleum: oil m boilers. 

The use of crude (unrefined) mineral oil in steam boilers is 
attended by risks caused by impurities and foreign substances 
mixed with it. These are likely to combine with the earthy 
matter in the water and tend to form instead of preventing 
scale ; the tar and wax contained in crude petroleum combine 
with the sediment in steam boilers, and the paste prevents the 
water from reaching and protecting the plates. This is true 
particularly in shell boilers which have flat surfaces over the fire. 
Refined mineral oil has none of these disadvantages. 

Kerosene oil has all the advantages to be derived from the 
use of crude petroleum and the above objections quite re- 
moved. 

In one system of the application of steam the use of kerosene 
and petroleum cannot be recommended : that is when Jive steam 
is used for cooTcing purposes, the odor from the oil will im- 
pregnate the meat and other products designed for food con- 
sumption. 



1^6 Maxims and Instructions. 



KEKOSEKE OIL IN BOILERS. 

Under certain conditions, and with care and judgment, the 
use of refined petroleum has been found to be of great advan- 
tage in removing and preventing scaling in steam boilers. 

There is no well authenticated case where a systematic, 
regular and uniform feed of pure kerosene oil to a steam boiler 
has failed to operate beneficially upon the scale formation. 

The best results are obtained by the use of the oil under the 
same arrangement that cylinder oil is fed to an engine. The 
kerosene is sometimes introduced through a one-fourth inch 
branch to the suction pipe of the feed pump, leading to the 
vessel containing the oil, so that any quantity, large or small, 
can be put into the boiler simultaneously with the usual feed. 
The drawback to this arrangement is that when the feed water 
heater has to be cleaned, a gallon or more of the oil is often 
lost, which together with a very unpleasant odor, when used 
in this manner, tends to condemn its use. But token piped he- 
tioeen the toiler and heater, these objections cease. We present 
an arrangement which is illustrated by cut on page 157. 

This is nothing more than a storage system with sight feed, 
by use of which the oil can be fed drop by drop as desired — for 
each drop of water entering the reservoir a drop of oil is forced 
down the small \ in pipe, up the glass tube and on into the 
boiler. 

In piping it is necessary to have the water or larger pipe (fin. ) 
attached through the lower plug as shown in cut, and the oil, 
as shown, going through the smaller or i in. pipe — i. e., the 
oil pipe must, under all circumstances, be the smaller of the 
two. 

In the figure is shown a piece of 6 in. gaspipe, about a foot 
in length, plugged at each end ; the top plug has one opening, 
for an inch nipple ^' a " with top. This opening is to be used 
in filling the reservoir with oil. The botton plug has two holes, 
one for the -J in. water pipe, and the second for a small pet 
cock " B,^' to let the water out, whenever it is necessary to re- 
fill the tank with kerosene. The water guage connection is 



Maxims and Instructions. 



157 



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T^S Maxims and Instructions^ 

DEVICE FOR "DSING KEROSENE OIL. 

tlie ordinary, clieap "brass fixture, with, boxes, niftples, etc., 
used in boilers, with, gasket of rubber bottom and top of the 
glass. The glass plainly exhibits the depth of water and oil in 
the reservoir as well as the feed of minute drops of oil as they 
speed on their beneficent mission softening the injurious scale. 
There are the usual 2 yalyes on the water glass ; by opening 
the lower one more or less, the amount of oil used can be regu- 
lated to a nicety. The Talves can be used to entirely cut ofE 
the apparatus at any time desired. 

Note. — Should the end of the screw connection inside the 
holder which each one of these valves control, not be \ inch, a 
reduced elbow should be used, as \ in. pipe will give the best 
satisfaction when used as a stand pipe inside the reservoir. 

The quantity oil to be fed to a boiler is very largely to be de- 
termined by experiment commencing with a minimum and in- 
creasing the amount as found necessary to keep down the scale 
f <;rmation. The use cf 2 qts. of the oil per week has been found 
to be sufficient for a boiler 4 feet m diameter and 12 feet long, 
and three quarts per week on boilers 5 feet in diameter. This 
quantity may be regarded as the smallest advisable to use and 
from that up to 1 to 2 gallons p:r diem in boilers, say of 
125 horse power, when pushed to their capacity in evaporating 
water. 

The result of careful experiments justifies the use of kerosene, 

the scale being less than in four years' i)revious experience, 
and a large portion of the boiler showing the clean black steel, 
in as apparently good condition as when new. 

Despite the small quantity of kerosene used in the boHers in 
this case, the odor was perceptible by opening an air valve to any 
steam radiator in any of the buildings. "When as much as a 
gallon per week was used, the odor was very strong, but with 
one-half that amount it was hard''y perceptible, and only to be 
noticed when an air valve had been open a long time. And 
since commencing to use the oil a much greater deposit of rust 
scales than usual has been found in the various steam traps in 
the buildings, indicating that the oil is also exerting a cleansing 
influence on the pipes of the whole system. 



Maxims and InstrMctzons, /jp 

DEVICE FOR USING KEEOSENE OIL. 

IVoTTT. — Proyision must be made for the removal of tlie scale 
as it drops from the internal surfaces of the boiler, as at times 
many bushels of it have been deposited directly over the furnace ; 
hence, if a boiler is known to be badly incrusted, the kerosene 
Bhould. not be put in the first time more than three days before 
it is intended to wash the boiler. 

KoTE 2. — The safety valve should be opened to allow the es- 
cape of the gas arising from the kerosene before cleaning out 
the boiler, where a lighted lamp or candle is used, as it must 
necessarily be — indeed this is a precaution which ought always 
to be observed in all cases, viz., properly to ventilate boilers, 
heaters, and tanks of all descriptions before entering them with 
lighted lamps and torches. While these gases are not likely to 
cause an explosion, they burn quite rapidly and should be 
promptly removed without giving opportunity for an accident. 

The accumulation of gas is not confined to the use of kero- 
sene oil for the prevention of scale in steam boilers, but is also 
found in flour mills, confectioners', conduits for electric wires, 
brewers' vats, etc. So, with common sense precautions, no ex- 
tra risk is run in using kerosene oil in steam boilers. 

MECHANICAL BOILER CLEAIS^EES. 

Owing to the fact (1) that nearly, if not quite all, the im- 
purities which exist in feed water are set free by the high tem- 
perature attained under pressure ; (2) that these impurities are 
left in the boiler by the constant use of the steam, there follows 
the result thau t-.e water remaining is more and more impreg- 
nated with the residuum composed of the foreign matters which 
(the water removed) constitutes mud, scale, etc. 

The custom has been and is now to regularly '* blow off ^* one 
or two guages of this water once or twice per day replacing it 
with fresh water of less density ; that this is a very imperfect 
method for removing the foreign matter is readily allowed, be- 
sides wasting absolutely all the units of heat contained in the 
water blown off. 

Kow, within the boiler while in use, under the operation 
ol the fierce heat of the furnaces, are constant changes in the 



l6o Maxims and Instructions^ 

MECHANICAL BOILER CLEANERS, 
position of the water caused by the boiling, by the withcirawal 
of the steam and by the constant effort of the hot water to rise 
and the cold water to fall. The water thus keeps in circulation 
everything within the boiler, including the sediment, except in 
places where the ivater is from ayiy cause without motion. In 
these quiet nooks there is a constant depositing of the elsewhere 
active foreign matters contained in the water, which deposits, 
in the form of mud and scale, left undisturbed, causes loss and 
danger. 

It is in taking advantage of these facts, and of the principles 
of the circulation of hot and cold water, that mechanical boiler 
cleaners are brought into successful use. 

These devices for the stilling of the water and collection of 
the sediment are made in various forms and all sizes and capaci- 
ties, and are located at the sides or back of the boiler setting 
and even on top of the boiler. There is a system where pipes 
m a coil are fixed m the sides of the furnace and exposed to its 
greatest heat, and which, owing to their enlarged area, act as 
most efficient reservoirs. In all these devices there is an upfloio 
pipe connected with the lower and coolest water, and a return 
pipe connecting with the top of the water where it is hottest. 
This arrangement assures a constant current which is more or 
less rapid according to the intensity of the fire and which keeps 
up as long as the firmg is done. Where this current passes 
through the reservoir, the enlarged area and comparative quiet 
is favorable for the deposit of the sediment and in practical ex- 
perience it does deposit nearly all of it. The collection of the 
impurities is helped by q> funnel-shaped appliance placed at the 
opening of the upflow pipe, which, aided by the rapid flow of 
the hot water, carries the floating scum towards it into the 
reservoir. Attached to the reservoir is the blow-off pipe through 
which the deposited matter is removed as often as necessary. 

The use of these mechanical cleaners is readily understood : 
(1) they provide a place of accumulation for the sediment ; (3) 
they save the necessity of opening the boilers to remove by 
hand, the refuse of the boiler ; (3) save fuel by avoiding the 
necessity of frequent blowing off one or two guages of watier, 
and (4) by the preventing the formation of scale with its at* 
Pendant evils. 



Maxims and Instructions^ i6i 

SCUMMING APPAEATUS. 

In addition to tlie bottom blow-ont apparatus every boiler 
should be provided with m?ans for blowing out water from the 
surface in order to remove the fine particles of foreign matter 
floating there, which afterward settle and consolidate as scale 
on the heating surfaces. 

It consists, in its simplest form, of a pan, or a conical scoop. 




ScVVNwC^^^^ 



Fig. 70. 
near the surface of the water, but below it, connected with a 
pipe passing through the boiler-shell, on which is a cock, or 
valve, for regulating the escape of the water laden with the im- 
purities deposited in the pan. There are patented apparatus 
for this purpose which are well designed and easily fitted to 
a boiler. 

The office of the surface blow-off, illustrated in Fig. 70, IS 
to remove the foreign matter which is precipitated from its 
solution in the water. 

A surface blow-off used occasionally will remove the greater 
portion of this scum and keep the boilers reasonably free from 
scale and mud. Where dirty or muddy water is fed into the 
boilers the surface blow-off is one of the cheapest and most 
efficient means for keeping the boiler clean. The efficiency of 
the surface blow-off is not so great as that of some of the me- 
chanical boiler-cleaners, as by their use it is not required that 
any hot water shall be wasted, and this is the greatest objec- 
tion to the surface blow-off, as in the hands of some people a 
large amount of boiling water is wasted each time it is Hf'e'^ 
But both of th«ae arrangements arc virtuaily skimmers, as they 
reii^^.v. i/xic |ft-ecipitated mineral and vegetable matter from the 
surface of the water in the boiler. One does it by blowing ou^ 



j62 Maxims and Instructions, 

SCUMMING APPARATUS, 
the scum and some water at the same time, while the mechani- 
cal boiler-cleaner removes the scum, but returns the water to 
the boiler. 

There are several efficient ways of arranging a surface 
blow-off. The principal part of the blow-off is a pan or perfor- 
ated pipe placed horizontally at the water level having a pipe 
leading outside the boiler to any convenient place where the 
scum may be blown. When a perforated pipe is used the action 
is to force the scum from the top of the water during the time 
the valve is open, and blow it through the pipe. In using an 
apparatus of this kind it should be blown often, bat only for a 
moment at a* time, as all the scum near the pipe is removed 
immediately, and to keep the valve open longer than necessary 
to remove the scum near the pipe would allow the escape of 
clean water or steam which would be wasteful. If a pan is 
used and is fastened so that the top is secured at the ordinary 
water level, as shown in Fig. 70, the blow-off pipe leading 
from near the bottom of the pan, it will be more efficient than 
the perforated pipe arrangement as it will not require to be used 
so often, and the waste of water and steam will not be so great. 
The pan, by producing an eddy in the water, causes all the 
scum to gather orer the top, and as the water is quiet there it 
will gradually settle into the pan, where it will remain as mud. 
When the blow-off valve is opened the greater part of the mud 
which is gathered is blown out, and but very little water is 
carried with it. 

USE OF ZING 1^ MAKINE BOILEES. 

Zinc has been used in marine boilers for many years, but it 
was not until the publication in 1880 of the report of the 
Admiralty committee that the use of zinc became general. It 
has been used in \arious ways: 1. — Virgin spelter, as imported 
in oblong slabs of various sizes. 2. — Cast, or remelted zinc. 
3. — Cast zinc buttons, generally made from virgin spelter or 
new clean zinc trimmings. 4. — Zinc spheres. 5.- -Rolled zinc 
blocks, generally 12 inches by 6 inches, and thicknesses vary- 
ing from \ inch to l^ inch, generally with a 13-1 6 mch holem 
the centre. 



Maxims and Instructions^ 



J(>3 



USE OF ZINC IN MARINE BOILEES 
It is desirable that close-grained zinc of uniform structure 
and free from impurities should be used, and rolled zinc 
appears to meet this want. The wear is entirely confined to 
the surface. It does not appear to become distorted or broken 
up. On the contrary, it gradually wastes away till only a 
slight shred, a sort of skeleton frame work, remains to indicate 
what it has been. 

The primary object in the use of zinc in boilers is the pre- 
vention of corrosion, bnt it has also some effect in reducing the 
amount of incrustation, and rendering it softer and less 
adherent. 

Table 

Showing Amount of Sediment collecting in a steam toiler when 
evaporating 6,000 gallons per weelc, of 58,318 grains each. 



When a gallon of feed i 
water evaporated to | 
dryness at 212 degrees j 
Fahrenheit, leaves of 
solid matter in grains. 


The araonnt of solid 

matter collecting 

in boiler per weelc will be: 


When a gallon of feed 
water, evaporated to 
dryness at 212 degrees 
Fahrenheit, leaves of 
solid matter in grains: 


The amount of solid 

matter collecting 

in boiler per week will be: 


Grains. 


Pounds. 


Ounces. 


Grains. 


Pounds. 


Ounces. 


1 




13.714 


55 


47 


2.285 


2 


1 


11.428 


60 


51 


6.857 


3 


2 


9.143 


65 


55 


11.428 


4 


3 


6.857 


70 


60 




5 


4 


4.571 


75 


64 


4.571 


6 


5 


2.285 


80 


68 


9.143 


7 


6 




85 


72 


13.714 


8 


6 


13.714 


90 


77 


2.285 


9 


7 


11.428 


95 


81 


6.857 


10 


8 


9.142 


100 


85 


11.428 


15 


12 


13.713 


110 


94 


4.571 


20 


17 


2.284 


120 


102 


13.714 


25 


21 


6.855 


130 


111 


6.857 


30 


25 


11.426 


140 


120 




35 


30 




150 


128 


9.142 


40 


34 


4.571 


160 


137 


2.285 


45 


38 


9.143 


170 


145 


11.428 


60 


42 


13.714 


180 


154 


4.571 



/<5^ Maxims and Instructions. 



BOILER FIXTTJRES AKD BELONGINGS. 

A boiler is not complete wifchout certain fixtures. There 
must be a feed-pump or injector, with a supply-pipe, feed-valve, 
safety feed -valve, and cbeck- valve, in order to supply water 
properly to the boiler; gauge-cocks, a glass water-gauge, a blow- 
pipe, with its valve, to reduce the height of the water in the 
boiler, or to empty it entirely; a safety-valve to allow the steam 
to escape from the boiler when it exceeds a fixed pressure; a 
scumming apparatus to remove the foreign matters from the 
water as much as possible; a steam-pipe to convey the steam to 
the place where it is wanted; man-holes and hand-holes, with 
their covers and guards, for examination and cleaning; a non- 
corrosive steam-gauge, to accurately indicate at all times the 
amount of pressure in the boiler; and a fusible pl'\g to give 
warning in case of ** low water." 

Thus we see that in speaking of a boiler, not only the boiler 
proper is meant, but also the whole of its fixtures and belong- 
ings, of which the following is only a partial list: 

Feed Pump, Surface Blow Cocks, 

Injector or Inspirator, Grate Bars, 

Check Valve, Baffle or Shield Plates, 

Guage Cocks, Mud Drum, 

Glass Water Gna^ Feed Water Heaters, 

Try Cocks, Boiler Fronts, 

Blow-out Apparatus^ Dead Plate, 

Blow-off Valve, Steam Pressure Recording 

Safety VaJve, Guage, 

Scum Apparatus, Drain Cock for Steam Guage^ 

Steam Guage, Steam Trap, 

Fusible Plug, Steam Whistle, 



Maxims and Instructions, i6^ 

BOILER FIXTURES. 

All these are attachments to the boiler proper, having direct 
reference to its internal functions; but in addition there are 
tbe lugs, pedestals, or brackets which support the boiler; the 
masonry in which it is set, with its binders, rods, and wall- 
plates; the boiler front, with its doors, anchor-bolts, etc.; the 
arch-plates, bearer-bars, grate-bars, and dampers, an I last, bufc 
not least, the chimney. These are all equally necessary to 
enable the boiler to perform its duty properly. And besides, 
there are required fire-tools, fliie brushes and scrapers, and 
scaling tools, with hose also, to wash out the boiler, to say 
nothing of hammers, chisels, wrenches, etc. 

The fittings and attachments of the marine boiler are similar 
to those belonging to the land steam generators, and vary only 
in accommodating themselves to their peculiar surroundings. 

The proper operation of the boiler as to efficiency and econ- 
omy is largely dependent upon the number, appropriate pro- 
portion and harmony of action of its numerous attachments, 
and the utmost care and skill are requisite for designing and 
attaching them. 

It mnst not be supposed that a complete list and description 
of all steam boiler attachments are here presented — that were 
a task beyond the limits of the entire volume. 

BOILER FRONTS. 

Boiler fronts are made in many different styles, almost every 
maker having some peculiar points in design that- he uses on 
his own boilers and which nobody else nses. 

In the illustrations here given may be seen the four princi- 
pal designs : 

1. The flush front as shown in Fig. 72. 

2. The overhanging front as seen in Fig. 73, 
5 . The cutaway front. Fig. 74. 

4. Fronts with breaching as shown in Fig. 75. 

The flush front is one of the earliest forms of fronts, and 
though it often gives good satisfaction, yet it is liable to certain 
accidents. 



66 



Maxims and Instructions. 




Flush Front.— Fig. 72. 



BOILER FRONTS. 

As will be seen from cut 
72, the front of the smoke 
arch,, in this form of setting, 
is flush with the front of the 
brickwork, and the dry sheet 
just outside of the front 
head is built into the brick- 
work. The heat from the 
fire, striking through the 
brickwork, impinges on this 
sheet, which is unprotected 
by water on the inside. So 
long as the furnace walls are 
in proper condition the heat 
thus transmitted should not 
be SLifEcient to give trouble; 
but after running some time 
bricks are very apt to fall 
away from over the fire door, 
and thus expose portions 
of the dry sheet to the 
direct action of the fire, 
causing it to be burned 
or otherwise injured by 
the heat, and perhaps 
Etartmg a leakage 
around the front row of 
rivets when the head is 
attached to the shelL 

In the overhanging 
front this tendency is 
entirely prevented by 
setting the boiler in such 
a manner that the dry 
sheet projects out into 
the boiler roo7n. If the 
brickwork over the fire 
door falls away when a 
boiler is set in this man- 



Maxims and Instructzons. 



16'^ 



BOILER FRONTS. 



ner, the only effect is to 
slightly increase the heating 
surface. No damage can 
be done, since the sheet 
against which the heat 
would strike is protected by 
water on the inside. 

The objection is some- 
times raised against the pro- 
jecting front, that it is in 
the way of the fireman. To 
meet this point and yet pre- 
serve all the advantages of 
this kind of front, the cut- 
away style has come into use. 
In this form the lower por- 
tion or the front sheet is cut 
obliquely away, so that at 
the lowest point the boiler 
projects but little beyond 
the brickwork. 

It will be noticed that 
in the flush and overhang- 
ing fronts, the doors open 
sidewise, swing about on 
vertical hinges; in the 
cutaway front the best 
way to arrauge the tube 
dooristorunahingealong 
the top of it, horizontally, 
and to have the door open 
upward. But with such 
a disposition of things the 
door is not easy to handle. 
For the purpose of sup- 
port a hook and chain, 
hanging from the roof 
should be provided. 




Overhanging Front. — Fig. 73. 




c=^( 



Cutaway Front. — Fig. 74, 



i68 



Maxims and Instructions, 



BOILER FRONTS. 

Fig. 75 shows a boiler 
the setting of which is 
similar in general design 
to the other three, except 
that in the place of a 
cast-iron front it has 
bolted to it a sheet iron 
breeching that comes 
down over the tubes and 
receives the gases of 
combustion from them. 
In Fig. 75 a manhole 
is shown under the 
tubes. This, of course, 
is not an essential fea- 
ture of the breeching, 
but it will be seen that 
manholes can readily be 
put below the tubes on 
fronts of this kind, in 
such a manner as to be 
very convenient of access. 

In addition fco these more general styles of boiler fronts, 
there are fronts designed particularly for patent boilers, water- 
front boilers, etc., which are made, very often, in ornamental 
and attractive designs. In Fig. 71 is shown a beautiful and 
appropriate design in use in connection with water tabular 
boileis. 




Front for Manhole.— Fio-. 75. 



FUEl^ACE DOORS. 

The chief points to be considered in the design of furnace 
doors are to prevent the radiation of heat through them, and 
to provide for the admission of air above the burning fuel in 
order to aid in the consumption of smoke and unburnt gasses. 

In all cases where the doors are exposed to very rough usage 
— such, for instance, as in locomotive and marine boilers — the 
means for admitting air must be of the simplest, and consist 
generally of small perforations as shown in Fig. 76 which re* 



Maxims and Instructions, 



i6g 



FURNACE DOORS. 
presents a front Tiew, and section of the furnace door of a 
locomotive boiler. The heat from the burning fuel is prevented 




A 



Pig. 76. 

from radiating through the perforation in the outer door, by 
attaching to it a second or baffle plate, a, at a distance of about 
1 J inches, the holes in which do not coincide in direction with 
the door proper. By the constant entry of cold air from the 
outside the greater part of any heat which may be com- 
municated to the door by radiation or conduction is returned 
to the f nrnace. 

Doors similar to the above provide for the constant addition 
of limited quantities of fresh air above the fuel, but in actual 
practice, however, air is only needed above the fire for a few 
minutes after fresh fuel has been thrown on the grates and 
then is required in considerable quantities. In the case of 
land boilers, the furnace doors of which undergo comparatively 
mild treatment, it is possible to introduce the necersary com- 
plications to effect this object. 

J 

i 




B - !-«*«^ 



f^zzzzm 



i 
% 






Fig. 77. 



I^O Maxims and Instructions, 

FURNACE DOORS. 

Fig. 77 shows an arrangement largely in use in New England, 
in which, by means of a diaphram, the air is passed back and 
forth across the heated inner or baffle plate with the very best 
results. 

The air is first drawn by the natujal draught into the hollojv 
space between the iron door and its lining, through a row of 
holes A, in the lower part of the door, controlled however, by 
a slide not shown in the cut, then caused to flow back and 
forth across the width of the door by simply arranged 
diaphrams, and finally injected into the furnace through a 
series of minute apertures drilled in the upper part of the door 
liner, as indicated in cut at B. 

It will be seen that while the air may enter the door at a low 
temperature, it constantly becomes heated during its circulation 
until the instant it enters the furnace, it is ready to flash into 
flame with intense heat upon its incorporation with the ex- 
panding gasses of the furnace. 

An arrangement in common use in Cornish and Lancashire 
boilers consists of a number of radial slits in the outer door 
which can be closed or opened at will in the same manner as 
an ordinary window ventilator. Other and more complicated 
arrangements have been frequently devised, which work admir- 
ably so long as they remain in order, but the frequent banging 
to which furnace doors are subjected, even in factory boilers, 
soon deranges delicate mechanism. 

Furnace doors should be made as small as possible consider- 
ing the proper distribution of fael over the grate area, as other- 
wise the great rush of cold air, when the door is opened rapidly 
cools down the flues and does considerable injury to tube plates, 
etc. ; for this reason it is desirable, when grates are over forty 
inches in width to have two doors to each furnace, which can 
be fired alternately. 

The great loss arising from a rush of cold air on opening the 
furnace doors for raplenishing the fires with fuel has led to 
costly experiments to produce '* a mechanical stoker,^' or self 
boiler feeding arrangement for supplying the coal as needed. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



171 



FUSIBLE PLUGS. 



In some States tlie insertion of fusible 
plugs at the highest fire line in boilers is 
compelled by law under a heavy penalty. 
Its design is to give the most emphatic 
warning of low water, and at the same 
time relieve the boiler of dangerous press- 
ure. 

rigs. 78 and 79 exhibit two of the forms 
most commonly used, and on the succeed- 
Fig. 78. i^g P^'gG^ i^ cut 80, is shown the device 

in operation where the water has sunk to 
a dangerously low level. In the illustration the device is 
shown in connection with a locomotive boiler, in the common 
tubular boiler the plug is usually inserted in the rear head of 
the boiler, so that in case of its operation it will not endanger 
the fireman. 




These devices are designed to be screwed into the boiler shell 
at the safety line. Ths figs. 78 & 79 exhibits their construction. 
The part to be screwed into the boiler is called the shell and is 
commonly made of brass; the internal part is plug and is made 
of a soft metal like banca tin or a 
compound consisting of lead, tin 
and bismntl]. This composition 
melts easily at the proper point 
to allow escape, where the water 
has sunk to a dangerously low 
level. 

There is considerable diversity 
in the make up of the material 
used for filling the plug, which 
must not have its melting point 
at ac /thing less than the temper- 
ature of the steam lest it should 




g-> off" at the wrong time. 



Fio:. 79. 



i?3 



Maxims and Instructions, 



FUSIBLE SAFETY PLUG. 



ioQOOd 




Fig. 80. 

If the accident of low water occurs at a time where it is 
important to continue operations with the least possible delay, 
a pine plug may be driven in the opening left by the melting 
of the fusible metal. In any event it is but a short job to re- 
new the fusible cap, it being only necessary to unscrew the nut 
and insert a new cap, the rest of the device remaining intact. 

The plug should be renewed occasionally and the surface ex- 
posed inside the boiler be kept free from scale and deposit. It 
is to be understood that the fusible portion extends entirely 
through the shell of the boiler and when melted out makes a 
vent for the water or steam. 

All marine boilers in service in the United States are required 
to have fusible plugs, one-half inch in diameter, made of pure 
tin, and nearly aH first-class boiler makers put them in each 
boiler they build. 



Maxims and Instrzictions, 



'73 



GEATE BARS. 




Fig. 81. 

The Grate Bars are a very important part of the furnace 
appliances. These consist of a number of cast iron bars sup- 
ported on iron bearers placed at and across the front and 
back of the furnace. Innumerable forms of grate bars have 
been contrived to meet the cases of special kinds of fuel. 
The type in common use is represented in Fig. 82. 





3? 



These cuts show a side view and a section of a single bar, 
and a plan of three bars in position. Each bar is in fact a 
small girder, the top surface of which is wider than the 
bottom. On each bar are cast lugs, the width of which de- 
termines the size of the opening for the passage of air. 
This opening varies in width according to the character of 
the fuel ; for anthracite f inch is a maximum, while for soft 
coals f to f inch is often used; for pea and nut coal still 
smaller openings than either of those are used, L e., i and 
f inches. For wood the opening should be a full inch in 
width. 

For long furnaces the bars are usually made in two lengths, 
with a bearer in the middle of the grate, as shown in Fig. 83, 
As a rule long grates are set with a considerable slope towards 



n4 



Maxims and Instructions, 



GRATE BARS. 




Fig. 83. 
the bridge in order to facilitate the distribution of the fuel; 
an inch to a foot is the rule commonly approved. 




Fig. 84. 



Rocking and shahing grates are now very extensively used; 
these combine a dumping arrangement, and very largely 
lessen the great labor of the fireman, and by allowing the 
use of slack and other cheap forms of fuel are very econom- 
ical. Several patents are issued upon this form of grate bars 
all working on essentially the same principal. Fig. 84 exhib- 
its an efficient form of a shaking grate. As shown in the cut, 
the grates are arranged to dump the ashes and clinkers. By 
the reverse motion the flat surface of the grates are restored. 

Trouble with grate bars comes from warping or twisting 
caused by excessive heat, and burning out, produced by the 
same cause — this explains the peculiar shape in which grates 
are made — very narrow and very deep. A free introduotioa 



Maxims and Instructions. /75 

GRATE BARS, 
of air not only causes perfect combustion but tends towards 
the preservation of the bars. 

Grate bars are usually placed so as to incline towards the 
rear, the inclination being from one to two inches; this facili- 
tates somewhat the throwing of the coal into the furnace. 

The proportion between grate and heating surface should be 
determined by the kind of fuel to be used. The greatest 
economy will be attained when the grate is of a size to cause 
the fire to be forced, and have the gases enter the chimney only 
a few degrees hotter than the water in the boiler. 

If the grate is too large to admit of forcing the fire, the com- 
bustion is naturally slower, and consequently the temperature 
in the furnace is lower, and the loss from the escaping gases 
is greater. 

It must be borne in mind that the only heat which can be 
utilized is that due to the difference in temperature between 
the fire and the water in the boiler. For example, if the tem- 
perature in the furnace be 975°, and the water in the boiler 
have a temperature due to 80 pounds of steam, viz. : 325°, it is 
evident that the heat which can be utilized is the difference 
between them, or f of the total heat. Now if the fire be 
forced, and the furnace temperature raised to 2600°, -J of 
the total heat can be utilized; so it can be readily seen that 
the grate should be of such a size as to have the fire burn 
rapidly. 

The actual ratio of grate to heating surface should not in any 
case be less than 1 to 40, and may with advantage, in many 
cases, be 1 to 50. This proportion will admit of very sharp 
fires, and still insure the greater portion of the heat being 
transmitted to the water in the boiler. 

The water grate bars, invented in 1824, and since frequently 
applied to locomotives and marine boilers, do not seem to 
grow in popular favor, and are scarcely known in stationary 
boilers. 

The objections urged against them are the expense of main- 
tenance, their fittings an^l attachments, and the possibility of 
serious consequences should they rupture or burn out. 



176 



Maxims and Instructiofis. 




WATER GAUGE COOKS. 

It is of the first importance that those in charge of a boiler 
shall know with certainty the position of the water leyel within 
the boiler. 

These attachments, also called 
Try cocks, are usually 23laced in a 
conspicious and accessible position 
on the front of boilers. They are 
so arranged that one will blow 
only steam, one at the working 
level of the water, and the third 
at the lowest water level or say 
three inches above the highest 
point of the fire line of the boiler. 
The cut, Fig. 85, exhibits them as 
commonly arranged. 

It is not essentially requisite, 
that the the cocks themselves 
should be placed at the point indi- 
cated, so long as they have pipes projecting internally into the 
boiler, with their ends corresponding to the height of water 
above mentioned. In order that these cocks may readily be 
cleaned out, a plug is usually fitted into bit of cock opposite 
the port or opening of the plug, upon removing which a pricker 
can be readily inserted. 

The gauge or cocks should be tested many times each 
day, and when opened the top one should always give steam 
and the bottom one water. They should be allowed to re- 
main open long enough to make sure whether steam or 
water is issuing from the cock. This is a matter of instruc- 
tion, but the beginner with a little experience can detest the 
difference by the sound. 

In so universal an appliance as this there are very many 
forms and arrangements, but they ^ work upon the same 
principle as stated above. 



Fig. 85. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



177 



GLASS GAUGES. 

These are the second and auxilliary arrangements for 
ascertaining the water line. Near- 
ly all boilers are supplied with both 
try cocks and glass gauges, and 
so important is it considered to 
be correctly informed as to the 
water line that a third method con- 
sisting of a float which is carried on 
the water surface, is sometimes added 
to the two named. 

The glass water gauge column 
consists of an upright casting bolted 
to the front of the boiler, in which 
are fixed two cocks having stuffing 
boxes for receiving the gauge glass. 
The lower of these cocks is also 
fitted with a drain cock for blowing 
out the glasp. 

The try cocks are frequently placed 
on the above-mentioned standard 
or column. 

The action of the gauge glass is to show the level of the 
water in the boiler by natural gravitation and the best posi- 
tion for it is in view of the engine r.)om, as close to the 
boiler as possible and preferably in the middle line of its 
diameter, at such height that its lowest portion is about two 
inches above the highest part of the fire line of the boiler, and 
its center, nine inches above that, making the total visible por- 
tion of glass eighteen inches longo 

Glass water gauges sometimes have pipe connections top mid 
bottom. The object of this arrangement is to have an una.s- 
turbed water level in the glass by carrying one pipe to the 
steam dome and the other near to the bottom of the boiler ; 
the one position not being so liable to be effected by foartiing 
and the other by the boiling of the water. Cocks should 
always be fitted to the boiler ends of these pipes, in order that 




lyS Maxims and Instructions, 

WATER GAUGES. 

in case of accident to tlio pipes, steam and water may be shut 
off. 

The glasses are h'able to burst and become choked up with 
dirt. The former defect is easily repaired by shutting off the 
cocks in connection with the boiler and putting in a new glass. 
The mud or sediment is cleaned out by opening the above- 
mentioned drain or blow out cock and allowing the steam or 
water, or both, to rush through the glass, which will effectually 
blow out all sediment and leave the glass in good condition 
again to show the height of the water in the boiler. 

In ojiening the cocks connected with the glasses, it should be 
done cautiously, as the glass is liable to burst. 

A strip of white running the whole length of the glass on 
the side toward the boiler is a great help in observing the 
variations of the water line in the tube. 

It is not needed to remove the gauge glasses to clean them. 
There are good fixtures in the market that by taking out the 
plug in the top, the glass may be cleaned with a bit of wicking 
on the end of a stick. A slight scratch will break the glass, 
hence do not use wire. Use soft rubber gaskets when setting 
the glass, screw up until all leaking stops. Don't let the glass 
come in contact with the metal anywhere. Don't try to reset 
the glass with an old, hard gasket. Two glasses from the same 
bundle will not act alike. 

The glasses used to show the water line are made of a soft 
glass known as ^Head glass," and are easily cut, or broken 
square across. Most oE them can be broken by filing a notch 
at the point at which it is necessary to break them. After 
filing the notch, place the thumbs as if you would break the 
glass ; it will crack easily, and the fracture be straight and 
clean. If the tube be brittle, as some are, to avoid cutting the 
hands wrap two pieces of paper around the glass, each side of 
the notch. If the ends are rough or uneven, they can be made 
smooth by filing or by the grindstone. 

The Manchester, Eng., Boiler Association attribute more 
accidents to inattention to water gauges than to all other causes 



Maxims and Instructions, lyg 

"WATER Gauges. 

put together. It is, therefore, of much importance that these 
glasses should be kept clean. It is not an uncommon thing to 
go into a boiler room and find that a leaky stufiSng box has 
allowed the steam or water to blow out, and, by running down 
the outside of the glass, leave a deposit of lime scale. Af ^?r 
this deposit has been formed, it is sometimes difficult to remove 
— and more than a few glasses have been broken by the engineer 
attempting to remove the scale. After this scale has once 
been formed, unless it is soft enough to be wiped oS with a 
piece of waste, it is best to take the glass out and soak or wash 
it in a solution of one-half muriatic acid and one-half water 
until it is clean or the scale so softened that it may be readily 
wiped off. To prevent the scale from again forming and 
hardening, the glass should be dipped in glycerine before re- 
placing. 

THE MUD DRUM. 

The mud drum is attached to a boiler with the expectation 
that it will catch and hold the larger portion of the sediment 
precipitated from the water. The mud drum to be effective 
should be protected from the heat of the fire, for so soon as it 
receives sufficient heat to boil the water within it can no longer 
serve the purpose for which it was intended as all the sediment 
which may have gathered would be expelled by the ebullition of 
the water. When the drum is located under the boiler it is not 
in a good position to catch the sediment, as the boiling water 
produces sufficient current to carry the sediment to the top, 
or keep it violently agitat:d, so that there is little opportunity 
for it to be deposited any where so long as the boiler is making 
steam. Afterward when the water is quiet the sediment for the 
most past is deposited on the tubes and the curve of the shell; 
the small portion falling into the neck of the drum serves prin- 
cipally to show the inefficiency of the device. Located under 
the boiler as it generally is, makes it extremely difficult to get 
at for examination, and as a consequence of its being enclosed, 
as it m.ust be, to be of much importance, it is subject to greater 
deterioration than would otherwise be the case, and as the 
enclosure to be most efficient would enclose the neck also, the 



l8o Maxims and Instructions. 

THE MUD DRUM, 
difference of expansion at or near the junction would soon 
produce leaking if not worse. When the mud drum is located 
outside the boiler walls where it wouM be most efficient, if 
properly connected, it loses its identity and becomes a mechan- 
ical boiler cleaner. In consequence of these drawbacks the 
mud drum is becoming antiquated as a boiler appliance, and is 
now seldom used. 

BAFFLE PLATES. 

These are a device sometimes used inside steam boilers to check 
the too sudden flow of steam towards the exit pipe, they are sim- 
ply plate to baffle the rush of the steam so as to ayoid foaming. 

In Fig. 90 baffle plate is illustrated by the division casting 
against which the steam strikes on its passage from the boiler 
to the engine. The liners or inner plates of the boiler doors 
are baffle plates. 

DEAD PLATE. 

This is a flat plate of iron immediately inside the furnace 
door and is used in many boilers in order to insure the more 
perfect combustion of the coal. 

When the fresh fuel is laid on, it is placed on the dead 
plate instead of on the grate ; in this position the coal is 
coked, the gasses from the coal being ignited as they pass 
over the alread}^ intensly hot fuel in the furnace, the fuel 
from the dead plate is pushed forward to make place for 
another 'sharge to be put on the dead plate. But more fre- 
quently, as elswhere described, the fuel is thrown over and 
across the dead plate directly upon the hot fire. 

STEAM WHISTLES. 

These are of two kinds, known as the bell-whistle and organ- 
tube whistle; the latter is now fast superceding the former on 
account of the simplicity of construction and superior tone. 
An improved form has a division in the tube so as to emit two 
distinct notes, which may be in harmony, or discord, and when 
sounded together may be heard a long distsnce. 

It is important that the whistle shall sound as soon as the 
steam is turned on; to ensure this great care must be taken to 
keep the whistle-pipe free from water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



i8r 



THE STEAM GAUGE. 

The principle of construction of the dial steam gauge is, 
that the pressure may be indicated by means of a pointer in a 
divided dial similar to a clock face, but marked in division, 
indicating pounds pressure per square inch instead of hours and 
minutes. 

Figs. 87 and 88 show the ordinary style of gauge which con- 
sists of an elliptical tube, connected at one end to a steam pipe 
in communication with the boiler pressure and at the other end 
with gearing to a pointer spindle as shown in cut. 

An inverted syphon pipe is usually formed under the gauge, 
its object being to contain water and thus prevent the heat of 
the steam injuring the machinery of the gauge, or distorting 
its action by expansion. 




Pig. 87. 



Fig. 88. 




A small drain cock should be fitted to the 
leg of the S3rphon of a steam gauge, leading 
to the boiler, at a level with the highest 
point the water can rise in the other leg, 
otherwise an increased pressure will be indi- 
cated, due to the head of water which would 
otherwise collect in the boiler leg of the 
syphon. 

Steam gauges indicate the pressure of steam 



iSs Maxims and Instructions. 

THE STEAM GAUGE. 

above tlie atmosphere only, tlie total pressure being measured 
from a perfect vacuum which will add 14i^ lbs. on the average 
to the pressure shown on the steam gauge. 

These gauges are apt to get out of order in consequence of 
water lodging in the end of the heat tube and corroding the 
latter. It may be easily known when they are out of order by 
raising the pressure of the steam in the boiler and watching 
when it commences to blow off at the safety valve, and then 
noting the position of the index finger. The pressure registered 
by the finger should, of course, then correspond with the known 
blow off pressure of the valves ; if it does not, one or the other 
or both of these instruments must be out of order ; therefore, 
when this is the case and a disagreement occurs, the steam 
gauge may be presumed to need correction. 

It should also be noted that the steam gauge finger points to 
zero when steam pressure is cut off. A two-way cock should 
be used for closing the connection between the steam gauge 
and the boiler, and at the same time to let air into the steam 
gauge. 

The steam should never be allowed to act directly on a steam 
gauge when located in cold situations where they are liable to 
freeze. The valve on the boiler should be closed and the water 
allowed to drip out, and, before the steam is turned on from 
the boiler, the drip on the gauge should be closed, in order 
that sufficient steam may be condensed in the pipe to furnish 
the quantity of water necessary to keep the steam from striking 
the gauge. 

A ready method for leing always ahle to prove the correctness 
of your steam gauge. 

When steam is at some point not over half the usual pressure, 
place the ball on the safety valve at the point where it com- 
mences to blow off and mark the place. Move the ball twice 
as far from the fulcrum as this mark, and it should blow off at 
twice the pressure as indicated by the gauge, or it is not right. 
Any other relative distance may be used to advantage. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



1S3 



STEAM SEPARATOE. 




This appliance, which is also 
called an interceptor or catch 
water, is generally a T shaped 
^ pipe. 

This, although not a boiler 
fixture or fitting, is intimately 
connected with them : it Is an 
appliance fast coming into use 
both for land and marine 
engines, to guard against the 
danger to steam engine cylin- 
ders arising from ''the prim- 
ing'^ of the boilers when the 
steam is used at a high pressure 
with high speed of the piston. 
The separator is usually 
Fig- ^0- placed in the engine room, so 

as to be well in sight. The steam is led down the pipe round a 
diaphragm plate and then up again to the engine steam pipe. 
By this means any priming or particles of water that may be 
brought from the boiler with the steam will fall to the bottom 
of the interceptor or catch water, from whence it can be blown 
out, according to the arrangement of the pipes, by opening the 
drain cook fixed on the bottom. It has a water gauge fixed on 
the lower end, so as to show whether water is accumulating; 
and the engineer's attention is required to see that this water 
is from time to time blown off. 

In the illustration. Fig. 90, is shown the simplest form in 
which the device can be made. The arrows exhibit the direc- 
tion in which the steam travels, the aperture whence the water 
is to be blown out and the place for attachment of a water col- 
umn. In practical construction the separator should have a 
diameter twice that of the steam pipe and be 2^ to 3 diameters 
long. It is often made with a round top and flat bottom and 
sometimes with both ends hemispherical. The division plate 
should extend half the diameter of the steam pipe below the 
level of the bottom of the steam pipe. 



j84 



Maxims and Instructions. 



THE SEPARATOR. 

In Fig. 91 is shown an improved form of a steam separator 
whicli consists of a shell or casing in which there is firmly 
secured a double-ended cone. On this cone there arc cast a 
number of wings^ extending spirally along its exterior. On 
entering the separator the steam is spread and thrown outward 
by the cone and given a centrifugal motion by the spiral 
wings. These wings are constructed with a curved surface. 

It will be noticed that the steam on entering the separator is 
immediately expanded from a solid body into an annular space 
of equal volume to the steam pipe, whereby its particles are 
removed from the center and thus receive a greater amount of 
centrifugal motion. The entrained water cr grease, etc., is 
thus precipitated against, and flows along the shell of the sep- 
arator, and is collected in a well of ample proportions at base of 
separator, where it is entirely isolated from the flow of dry steam. 



SW««wV«v\*<>v«\3 




o<\€sj\<n^ 



Fig. 91. 




SENTINEL VALVE. 

It was formerly required for each marine boiler to have a 
small valve loaded with a weight to a few pounds per square 
inch above the working pressure, so that in case of the safety 
valves sticking fast and the gauge being false, an alarm might 
be given when there was an excess of pressure. Such valves 
were about f inch in diameter and sometimes as small as g. 
An arrangement of a small safety valve attached to a whittle 
lias been introduced, but with advances in other direct ons 
relating to safety these specialties are now getting to be o ulj 
imown by name. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



1S3 



DAMPER REGULATORS. 

These are well-known devices for so controlling the draught 
of the chimney that the steam pressure in the boiler will be 
increased or decreased automatically, that is, without the aid 
of a person. The regulator shown in Fig. 92, which is one of 

many excellent forms on the market, 
has the power to move the damper 
in both directions by water pressure, 
exerting a force on the end of the 
lever of nearly 200 lbs., thus com- 
pelling a certain and positive motion 
gk^f^^^ mill x ^^ of the damper when a variation in 

||S^W'*'*-^V."., J^jR'u the boiler pressure takes place. It 

"^ ' will open or close the damper upon 

the variation of less than one pound 

jflh____^^ \\ of pressure. The close regulation 

^'ve^*J<^ /R =r=^ --,^\ affords a test f r the correctness of 

>^^ Nrv==:r-^ rrr^^ the steam gauge. 

This regulator, by using the water 
pressure from the boiler as a motive 
power, becomes a complete engine 
without the connecting rod and 
crank, having a balanced piston 
valve, the valve stem of which is 
enlarged where itpasses through the 
upper end of the chest into a piston 
of small area, working in a small 
open ended cylinder cast on the chest. The pressure forcing 
this piston outward is counterbalanced by weights as shown in 
illustration. 

The differential motion is accomplished by the device shown 
at the top of small cylinder. 




FUEL ECONOMIZER AND FEED WATER PURIFIER. 

This device, shown in Fig. 93, is designed to utilize the 
waste products of combustion as they pass from the furnace to 
the chimney. Its use permits a high and consequently efficient 
temperature under the boilers and yet saves the excess of heat. 
It acts also as a mechanical boiler cleaner, furnishing a settling 



i86 



Maxims and Instructions. 



FUEL ECONOMIZER AND FEED WATER PURIFIER. 

chamber for the deposit of the impurities separated by the heat 
which nearly equals that of the live steam in the boiler. This 
device adds largely to the water capacity of the boiler, frequent- 
ly containing one-half the weight of the water held in the 
boiler itself. 

It will be readily understood that the openings between the 
vertical tubes are ample for the chimney flue area and that the 
device is located between the chimney and the boiler, with the 
waste furnace heat passing between the tubes. 




Fig. 93. 

The economizer shown in Fig. 93 consists of sections of ver- 
tical ^\" boiler tubes fitted te their top and bottom headers by 
taper joints. The top headers are provided with caps over 
each tube to permit cleaning out the sediment and remove and 
replace any tube that may become damaged. The several top 
headers are connected together at one end by lateral openings 
and the bottom headers are also connected as shown in cut, 
having hand holes opposite each bottom header to provide for 
cleaning out. 



Maxims and Inst^Mctions. 



i8y 



FUEL ECONOMIZER AND FEED "WATER PURIFIER. 
Mechanical scrapers are made to travel up and down each 
tube to keep them clear of soot. These are controlled by an 
automatic mechanism and driving head, as shown in the Fig. 93. 

The important features about the economizer are its adapta- 
bility to any type of boiler, the great saving attained by 
utilizing that heat which has necessarily been an almost total 
waste, the purifying of the water by means of the intense heat 
and slow circulation obtained. 



SAFETY VALVES. 

The most important fitting upon a steam boiler is the 
safety valve. 

It may also be defined, as 
applying to all valves, that the 
seat of the valve is the fixed 
surface on which it rests or 
against which it presses, and 
the face of a valve is that part 
of the surface which comes in 
contact with the seat. The 
spindle is the small rod, some- 
times made of composition 
bronze, which projects upwards 
or downward from the middle 
of the valve, and so arranged 
that it causes the valve to raise 
The seat is preferably leveled 




Fig. 94. 



and drop evenly upon its seat. 
at an angle of forty-five degrees. 



Generally speaking, the safety valve is a circular valve seated 
on the outside of the boiler, and weighted to such an extent, 
that when the pressure of the steam exceeds a certain point, 
the valve is lifted from its seating and allows the steam to 
escape. Safety valves can be loaded directly with weight 
valves, or the load can be transmitted to the valve by a lever. 
Again, the end of the lever is sometimes held down by a sim- 
ple weight attached to it, a plan generally adopted in land 



i88 



Maxims and Instructionu 



THE SAFETY VALVE, 
boilers ; while sometimes as in the case of locomotive and 
marine boilers, the lever is weighted by means of a spring, 
the tension of which can be adjusted. 

A valve much used in locomotives is shown in Fig. 94. 

It consists really of two valves A, A, placed side by side, 
at a little distance apart. A cross piece B bears upon each 
and to the cross piece is attached a powerful spiral spring 
By the lower end of which is so fixed at C that its tension 
can be adjusted by means of a set screw at E which is 
out of reach of the engine driver. Before the valves can rise 
they have to overcome the resistance of the spring to which 
the pressure is communicated by the cross piece. The spring 
is attached to the cross piece below the bearing points of the 
cross piece on the valves, hence if one of the valves should 
rise from its seating before the other, the spring leans a 
little towards this latter, easing the pressure on it, and allow- 
ing it to open. The rise of the valve from its seating is 
much greater with these directly loaded valves than when the 
pressure is transmitted through a lever, and thus the steam 
steam escapes with miich greater rapidity. 

A "pop^^ safety valve is a com- 




Fig. 95. 



mon form of safety valve and takes 
its name from the fact that it takes 
a little more pressure to raise it off 
its seat than what it is set at, conse- 
quently it releases itself with a 
^^pop." 

Fig. 95 shows a form of dead 
weight safety valves when a is the 
valve which rests on the seating I, 

The valve is attached to the cir- 
cular casting A, A, A, so that both 
rise and fall together. The weights 
W, W., etc., are disposed on the 
casting in rings, which can be 
adjusted to the desired blow off press- 
ure. Owing to the center of gravity 
of the casting and weight being below 
the valve, the latter requires no 



Maxims and Instructions. iS^ 

THE SAFETY VALVE. 

guides to keep it in position. This is a great advantage aa 
guides frequently stick, and prevent the valve from acting. 
Another advantage of this form of valve is, that it is difficult 
to tamper with. For instance, a four inch valve, intended 
to blow off at 100 lbs. per square inch would require weight 
of over 1,200 lbs., which require a considerable bulk. An 
unauthorized addition of a few pounds to such a mass would 
make no appreciable addition to the blowing off pressure, 
while any effectual amount added to the weight would be 
immediately noticed. It is quite different with the lever 
safety valve about to be described, a small addition to the 
weight at the end of the lever is multiplied several times at 
the valve. 

TJ. S. EuLES Relating to Safety Valves. 

Extract from rules and regulations passed and approved 
Feb. 25, 1885, by the United States Board of Supervising 
Inspectors of Steam Vessels : 

Section 24. *' Lever safety valves to be attached to marine 
boilers shall have an area of not less than one square inch to 
two square feet of the grate surface in the boiler, and the seats 
of all such safety valves shall have an angle of inclination of 
forty-five degrees to the centre line of their axis. 

'' The valves shall be so arranged that each boiler shall have 
one separate safety valve, unless the arrangement is such as to 
preclude the possibility of shutting off the communication of 
any boiler with the safety valve or valves employed. This 
arrangement shall also apply to lock-up safety valves when they 
are employed. 

' * Any spring-loaded safety valves constructed so as to give 
an increased lift by the operation of steam^, after being raised 
from their seats, or any spring-loaded safety valve constructed 
in any other manner, or so as to give an effective area equal to 
that of the aforementioned spring-loaded safety valve, may be 
used in lieu of the common lever-weighted valve on all boilers 
on steam vessels, and all such spring-loaded safety valves shall 



I go Maxims and Instructions, 

IT. S. RULES RELATING TO SAFETY VALVES, 
be required to have an area of not less than one square inch to 
three square feet of grate surface of the boiler, and each spring- 
loaded valve shall be supplied with a lever that will raise the 
valve from its seat a distance of not less than that equal to one- 
eighth the diameter of the valve-opening, and the seats of all 
such safety valves shall have an angle of inclination to the 
centre-line of their axis of forty-five degrees. But in no case 
shall any spring-loaded safety valve be used in lieu of the Icver- 
weightcd safety valve, without first having been approved by 
the Board of Supervising Inspectors/^ 

The following size ^'Pop'^ Safety Valves are required for 
boilers having grate surfaces as below : 

2 inch ^'Pop'^ Valve for 9.42 square feet of grate surface. 
24 " " '' '' 14.72 *' *^ 

3 •' " " " 21.20 ^\ *' 

4 *' ** '' *' 37.69 ** ** 
6 ** " '' *' 58.90 " ** 
6 '* *' " " 84.82 " '' 

Peofessoe Rai^kin's Rule. — Multiply the number of 
pounds of water evaporated per hour by .006, and the product 
will be the area in square inches of the valve. 

The U. S. Steamboat Inspection Law requires for the com- 
mon lever valve one square inch of area of valve for eyery two 
square feet of area of grate surface. 

United States Nav}^ Department deduced from a series of 
experiments the following rule : Multiply the number of pounds 
of water evaporated per hour by .005, and the product will be 
the area of the valve in square inches. 

Rule adopted by the Philadelphia Department of Steam 
Engine and Boiler Inspection : 

1. Multiply the area of grate in square feet by the number 
22.5. 2. Add the number 8. 6'3 to the pressure allowed per 
square inch. Divide (1) by (2) and the quotient will be the 
area of the val f e in square inches. This is the same as the 
Trench rule. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



igi 



SAFETY VALVE RULES. 

The maximum desirable diameter for safety valves is four 
inches, for beyond this the area and cost increase much more 
rapidly than the effective discharging around the circumference. 

There should not be any stop valve between the boiler and 
safety valve. 

The common form of safety valve is shown in Fig. 96. 

Here the load is attached to the end B of the lever A, B, 
the fulcrum of which is at c. The effective pressure on tha 
valve, and consequently the blowing off pressure in the boiler, 
can be regulated within certain limits, by sliding the weight 
W along the arm of the lever. In locomotive engines, as 
well as on marine boilers, the weight would on account of 
the oscillations, be inadmissible and a spring is used to hold 
down the lever. The pressure on the valve can be regulated 
by altering the tension of the spring. 

In the calculations regarding the lever safety valve, there 
are five points to be determined, and it is necessary to know 
four of these in order to find the fifth. These are : (1) The 
Steam Pressure, (2) The Weight of Ball, (3) The Area of 
Valve, (4) The Length of Lever, (5) The Fulcrum. 




Fig. 96. 
In making these calculations it is necessary to take into 
account the load on the valve due to the weight of the valve- 
stem and lever. The leverage with which this weight acts is 
measured by the distance of its centre of gravity from the 
fulcrum. The centre of gravity is found by balancing the 
lever on a knife edge, and thp weight of th^ valve-stem and 



tg2 Maxims and Instructions. 

SAFETY VALVE RULES, 
lever can be found by actual weighing. This load can also be 
found by attaching a spring balance to the lever exactly over 
the centre of the valve stem when they are in position. The 
following examples will be computed under these conditions : 
(1) Steam Pressure, 130 pounds; (2) Weight of Ball, 100 
pounds ; (3) Weight of Valve and Lever, 60 pounds, weighed 
in position ; (4) Length of Lever, 45 inches ; (5) Length of 
Fulcrum, 5 inches ; (6) Area of Valve, 8 square inches. 

To find the area of the valve : 

EuLE. — Multiply the length of the lever by the weight of the 
ball, and divide the product by the fulcrum, and to the quotient 
add the weight of the valve and lever, and divide the sum by 
the steam pressure. 

Example. 

45 inches, length of the lever, 
100 pounds, weight of the ball. 

Fulcrum, 5 in.)4500 

~9ob 

60 pounds, weight of valve and lever. 

Steam pressure 120 lbs.) 960(8 square inches, area of valve. 
960 

To find the pressure at ivhich the valve will blow off: 
Rule. — Multiply the length of the lever by the weight of 
the ball ; divide this product by the fulcrum, and to the 
quotient add the weight of the lever and valve, and divide the 
sum by the area of the valve. 

Example. 
45 inches, length of lever, 
100 pounds, weight of ball. 

Fulcrum 5 in.) 4500 

"ioo 

60 pounds, weight of valve and lever. 



Area of Valve 8) 960 

120 pounds, pressure at which valve will blow. 



Maxims and Instructions, igj 

SAFETY VALVE RULES. 

To find the weight of hall : 

EuLE. — Multiply the steam pressure by the area of the valve, 
and from the product substract the weight of the valve and 
lever, then multiply the remainder by the fulcrum, and divide 
the product by the length of the lever. 

Example, 
120 pounds, steam pressure, 
8 inches, area of valve, 

960 
60 pounds, weight of valve and lever. 

900 

5 inches, fulcrum. 



Length of lever, 45 in.)4500 



100 pounds, weight of ball. 

To find the length of lever : 

EuLE. — Multiply the steam pressure by the area of the valve, 
and from the product substract the weight of the valve end 
lever, then multiply the remainder by the fulcrum, and divide 
the product by the weight of the ball. 

Example, 
120 pounds, steam pressure, 
8 inches, area of valve, 

960 
60 pounds, weight of valve and lever. 



900 
5 



100)4500(45 length of lever. 

Every boiler should be provided with two gafe1;y valves, one 
cf which should be put beyond the control of the attendant. 
The size of the openings depenc*. oi course. ur)on tbe ste9-j» 
producing power of the boiler. 



Tg^^ Maxims and Instructions. 

POINTS RELATING TO SAFETY VALVES. 

Safety valyes that stick will do so even though tried every 
day, if they are simjjiy lifted and dropped to the old place on 
the seat again. If a toiler should ie found with an excessively 
Mgli inessure, it tvould he one of the worst things to do to start 
the safety valve from its seat unless extra iveight was added, for 
should the valve once start, it would so suddenly relieve the 
boiler of such a volume of steam as would cause a rush of water 
to the opening, and hy a blow, just the same as in water ham- 
mer, rupture the boiler. 

Such a condition is very possible to occur of itself when a 
safety valve sticks. The valve holds the pressure, that gets 
higher and higher, until so high that the safety valve does give 
way and allows so much steam to escape that the sudden chang- 
ing of conditions sets the water in motion, and an explosion 
may result. 

The noise made by a safety valve when it is blowing off may 
be regarded in two ways. First, by it is known that the 
valve is capable of performing its proper function, and that 
there is, therefore, a reasonable assarance that no explosion 
will result from excessive pressure of steam cr other gas, and 
on the other hand too much noise of this kind indicates wasted 
fuel. 

The hole of the safety valve may be 2, 3 or 4 inches; that 
does not say that the area is 3.141 6, 7.06 or 12.56 square inches, 
but the area is that which is inside of the joint. The valve 
opening may be, say 2 inches, but the circle of contact of valve 
to seat may be of an average diameter of 2-J inches, if so, all the 
close calculations otherwise will not avail. In the first place, 
the area of 2 inches equals 3.1416; that of 2^ diameter equals 
3.5466, showing a difference of .4 square inches. 

Note. 

Very extended rules issued by the TJ. S. Grovernment for 
salculating the safe working pressure, dimensions and propor- 
••JDns of the safety valves for marine boilers are reprinted in 
•' Hawkins' Calculations" for engineers. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



^95 



POINTS EELATING TO SAFETY VALVES. 
When a safety valve is described as a ^'^ 2 inch safety valve/* 
otc, it means that 2 inches is tlie diameter of the pipe; hence 
the tollowing rule and examples for finding the area. 

Rule for fikdin^g Area of Valve Opei^in^g. 
Square the diameter of the opening and multiply the product 
by the decimal .7854. 

Example. 
What is the area of a 3 inch valve ? Now then: 

3 X 3 = 9 X .7854 == 7.iVo square inches, Ans. 
.Note.— A shorter method of calculationg by .7854 in larger 
sums is to multiply by 1 1 and divide by 14, for decimal .7855 
= the fraction lith. Note: .7854 is the area of a circular inch. 
When valves rise from their seats under increasing steam 
pressure they do so by a constantly diminished ratio which has 
been carefully determined by experiment and reduced to the 
following table. 



Pressure in Lbs. 


Rise of Valve. 


Pressure in lbs. 


Rise of Valve. 


12 


1-36 


60 


1-86 


20 


1-48 


70 


1-132 


35 


1-54 


80 


1-168 


45 


1-65 


90 


1-168 


50 


1-86 







The following useful table was prepared by the Novelty Iron 
Wi)iks, New York. 



Boiler Pressure 
in Lbs. Above 
the Atmos- 
phere. 


Area of Orifir-e in 

Sq. In. for Each 

Sq. Ft. of Heating 

Suj face. 


Boiler Pressure 
in Lbs. Above 
the Atmos- 
phere. 


Area of Orifice in 

Sq. In. for Each 

Sq. Ft. of Heating 

Surface. 


0.25 


.022794 


40. 


.001723 


0.5 


.021164 


50. 


.001389 


1. 


.018515 


60. 


.001176 


2. 


.014814 


70. 


.001015 


3. 


.012345 


80. 


.000892 


4. 


.010582 


90. 


.000796 


5. 


.009259 


100. 


.000719 


10. 


.005698 


150. 


.000481 


20. 


.003221 


200. 


.000364 


30. 


.002244 







ig6 



Maxims and Instructions. 



FEED WATER HEATEES. 



There are two general 
f<;rms of feed water heaters 

HOT WATER OUTLET • , ,, , „ , 

TO BOILERS lust as there are two oi steam 
j^ boilers, i. e., 1, the water 
tube heater, where the feed 
water passes through tJie 
tubes and extracts the heat 
from the exhaust contained 
in the shell of the heater. 
2, the more approved form 
of heater where the water 
is held in the shell as it were 
in a tank, and the exhaust 
steam is passed through 
the tubes. 

The original feed water 
heater called a ^'^pot heat- 
er/' consisted of a vessel so 
constructed that the feed 
water was sprayed through 
the exhaust steam 
in to a globe formed 
tank, from the 
bottom of which 
the heated water 
\vas pumped into 
the boiler ; its 
name was origi- 
nally the "pot 
heater," but as it 
was open to the air 
through the ex- 
haust pipe, it was, 
with its succes- 
sively improved 
forms called the 
Fig. 97, open heater. 




Maxims and Instructions. 



191 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 

All the heat imparted to the feed water, before it enters the 
boiler, is so much saved, not only in the cost of fuel, but br 
the increased capacity of the boiler, as the fuel in the furnack 
will not have this duty to perform. There are two sources of 
waste heat which can be utilized for this purpose: the chimney 

gases and the exhaust 
steam. The gases escap- 
ing to the chimney after 
being reduced to the lowest 
possible temperature con- 
tain a considerable quan- 
tity of heat, 'i'his waste 
of heat energy may be 
largely saved by the device 
illustrated on page 186. 

How much saving is ob- 
tained under any given 
condition is a question 
requiring for its solution a 
careful calculation of all of 
the conditions which have 
a bearing on the subject. 
Exhaust steam under at- 
mospheric pressure only 
has a sensible temperature 
of 212 degrees, but exhaust 
steam contains also a large 
number of heat units which 
are given up when the 
steam is condensed into 
water; for this reason it 
might be thought possi- 
Fig. 98. ble to raise the temperature 

of the feed water a few degrees higher even than the sensible 
temperature of the exhaust steam. But this should not be 
expected, on account of the radiation of heat that would occur 
above that of the steam. 

The steam which escapes from the exhaust pipe dissipates 
into the atmosphere or discharges into the condenser over nine- 




igS Maxims and InstrMctions. 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 

tenths of the heat it contained , when leaving the boiler. This 
can be best utilized by exhaust feed ivaier heaters, for thense of 
live steam heaters represents no saving in fuel, as all the heat 
imparted to the feed water by their use comes directly from the 
boiler. The purpose for which they are used is to elevate the 
temperature of the feed water above the boiling point, so as to 
precipitate the sulphate of lime and other scale forming sub- 
stances, and prevent them from entering the boiler. Neither 
does the heat in the feed water introduced by an injector repre- 
sent saving, as it comes from the boiler and was generated by 
the fuel. 

It is important to note these two statements: 1, That neither 
live steam feed water heaters, nor 2, injectors save the heat 
from the escaping steam. 

It is also well to remember that it requires a pound of water 
to absorb 1.146 heat units, and that this quantity of heat is 
distributed through the whole quantity of water, and as a 
pound of steam is the same as a povnd of water, it may be 
understood that at 212° each pound of exhaust steam contains 
1,14G heat units; ten pounds of steam contain 11,460 heat 
units distributed through the mass, etc. : thus, to explain still 
further: 

To evaporate water into steam, it must first be heated to the 
boiling point, and then sufficient heat still further added to 
change it from the liquid to the gaseous state, or steam. Take 
one pound of water at 32 degrees and heat it to the boiling 
point, it will have received 212° — 3-^° = 180 heat units. 
A heat unit being the amount of heat necessary to raise one 
pound of water through one degree at its greatest density. To 
convert it into steam after it has been raised to the boiling 
point, requires the addition of 966 heat units, -which are called 
latent, as they cannot be detected by the thermometer. This 
makes 180+966 = 114:6 heat units, which is the total heat con- 
tained in one pound of water made into steam at the atmos- 
pheric pressure. And at atmospheric density the volume of 
this steam is equal to 26.36 cubic feet, and this amount of 
steam contains 1,146 units of heat, distributed throughout the 
whole quantity, while the temperature at any given point at 



Maxims and Instructions, igg 

FEED WATER HEATERS, 
which the thermometer may be inserted is 212 degrees. If two 
pounds of water be evaporated, making a volume of 52.72 
cubic feet, then the number of heat units present would be 
doubled, while the temperature would still remain at 212, the 
same as with one pound. 

If by utilizing the heat that would otherwise go to waste, the 
temperature of the feed water is raised 125 degrees, the saving 
would be tVA of the total amount of heat required for its evap- 
oration, or about 11 per cent. Thus it can be seen the percen- 
tage of saving depends upon the initial temperature of the feed 
water, and the pressure at which it is evaporated. 

For example, a boiler carrying steam at 100 pounds pressure 
has the temperature of the feed water raised from 60 to 200 
degrees, what is the percentage of gain ? 

By referring to a table pressure of ^^ saturated steam,^' it will 
be seen that the total heat in steam at 100 pounds pressure is 
1185 heat units. These calculations are from 32 degrees above 
zero, consequently the feed must be computed likewise. 

In the first case, the heat to be supplied by the furnace is the 
total heat, less that which the feed water contains, or 1185 — 
28=1157 heat units. In the second case it is 1185 — 168 = 1017 
heat units, the difference being 1157 — 1017 = 140, which repre- 
sents a saving of ^^, or about 12 per cent. 

Where feed water is heated no more than 20 degrees above 
its normal temperature the gain effected cannot amount to 
more than 2^, not sufficient to pay for the introduction and 
maintenance of a feed water heating device, no matter how 
simple, but if the temperature of the water can be increased 60 
degrees the gain will be in the neighborhood of 5^. To make 
feed water heating practical and economical it would be neces- 
sary to increase the temperature of the water about 180 degrees 
at least, and to do this, using the exhaust from a non-condens- 
ing engine without back pressure, would require such a capacity 
of heater as would give fully 10 square feet of heating surface 
to each horse power of work developed, and to raise the tem- 
perature above this would require a certain amount of back 
pressure or an increased capacity of heater, so that the subject 



200 



Maxims and Instructions. 



FEED WATER HEATERS. 

resolves itself into a qnestion of large capacity of heater, or a 
higher temperature of the exhaust steam, which could only be 
obtained through a given amount of back pressure. 

In the same way has been calculated the following table, 
showing percentages of saving of fuel by heating feed-water to 
various temperatures by exhaust steam, otherwise waste: 

Percentage of saving, {Steam at 60 pounds gauge pressure,) 



'3 0"^-' 



Initial Temperature of "Water (Falirenheit). 



60 
80 
[00 
120 
140 
160 
180 
200 
220 



32Deg. 



2.39 

4.09 

5.79 

7.50 

9.20 

10.90 

12.60 

14.36 

16.00 



Deg. 



1.71 

3.43 

5.14 

6.85 

8.57 

10.28 

12.00 

13.71 

15.42 



50 Deg. 



9.86 

2.59 

4.32 

6.05 

7.77 

9.50 

11.23 

13.00 

14.70 



60 Deg. 



1.74 
3.49 
5.23 

6.97 

8.72 

10.46 

12.20 

14.00 



70 Deg. 


80 Deg. 


*6.'88 




2.64 


i.77 


4.40 


3.55 


6.15 


5.32 


7.91 


7.09 


9.68 


8.87 


11.43 


10.65 


13.19 


12.33 



90 Deg. 



.90 

2.68 
4.47 

8.06 

9.85 

11.64 





100 Deg. 


120 Deg. 


140 Deg. 


160 Deg. 1 1 


80 Deg. 


200 Deg. 


60 
















80 
















100 
















120 


1.8*6 














140 


3.61 


1.84 














IfiO 


5.42 
7.23 

9.03 
10.84 


3.67 
5.52 
7.36 
9.20 


1.87 
3.75 
5.62 
7.50 


*i.*9i 

3.82 
5.73 

1 


i.*9G 
3.93 






180 






200 






220 


1.9< 


^ 



A good feed- water heater of adequate proportions should 
readily raise the temperature of feed-water up to 200° Fahr., 
and, as is seen by inspection of the table, thus effect a saving 
of fuel, ranging from 14.3 per cent, to 9.03 per cent., accord- 
ing as the atmospheric or normal temperature of the water 
varies from 32° Fahr. in the height o^ ^vinter, to 100° Fahr. in 
the height of summer. 



Maxims and Instructions, 20i 

POINTS RELATING TO FEED WATER HEATERS. 

The ]iercentage of saving which may be obtained from the 
use of exhaust steam for heating the feed water, with which the 
boiler is supplied, will depend upon the temperature to which 
the water is raised, and this, in turn, will depend upon the 
length of time that the water remains under the influence of 
the exhaust steam. This should be as long as possible, and 
unless a suflBcient amount of heating surface is employed in the 
heater best results cannot be expected. 

It does not necessarily require all the exhaust steam — or the 
whole volume of waste steam passing from tlie engine to bring 
the feed water up to the temperature desired, and the larger 
the heating appliance the smaller proportion is needed — hence 
heaters are best made with two exits nicely proportioned to 
avoid back pressure and at the same time utilize enough of the 
exhaust to heat the feed water. 

An improssion prevails among many who are running a con- 
denser on their engine that a feed water heater can not be used 
in connection with it ; large numbers of heaters running on 
condensing engines with results as follows : the feed water is 
delivered to the boiler at a temperature of 150° to 160° Fahr., 
depending on the vacuum: the higher the vacuum the less the 
heat in the feed water. 

A heater applied to a condensing engine generally increases 
the vacuum one to two inches. 

"When cold water is used for the feed water, the saving in 
fuel by the use of the heater is from 7 to 1 4 per cent. 

When feed water is taken from the hot well, it will save 7 to 
8 per cent. 

Where all the steam generated by a boiler is used in the 
engine and the exhaust passed through a heater it is found by 
actual experiment, where iron tubes are used in the heater, that 
approximately ten square feet of heating surface will be required 
for each 30 lbs. of water vsupplied to the boiler at a temperature 
of 200 degrees Fahr. 

Ten square feet of heating surface in the feed water heater 
also represents one horse power. 



201 Maxims and Instruction^, 



CAPACITY OF CISTER:N^S. 

The following table gives the capacity of cisterns for each 
twelve inches in depth: 

Diameter. Gallons, 

25 feet 3671 

30 '« 2349 

15 *' 1321 

14 '• 1150 

13 '* 992 

12 " 846 

11 *• 710 

10 " 587 

9 " 475 

8 * 376 

7 " 287 

6i*' 247 

6 " 211 

5 " 147 

4i" 119 

4 " 94 

3 " 53 

2i'* 36 

2 " 23 

Supposing it was required to find the weight of the water in 
any cistern or tank; it can be ascertained by multiplying the 
number of gallons by the weight of one gallon, which is 8^ 
pounds, 8.333. For instance, taking the largest cistern in the 
above table containing 3(J71 gallons: 3^,71x8.33=30579.43 
pounds. 

The table above gives the capacities of round cisterns or tanks. 
If the cistern is rectangular the number of gallons and weight 
of water are found by multiplying the dimensions of the cistern 
to get the cubical contents. For instance, for a cistern or tank 
96 inches long, 72 inches wide, and 48 inches deep, the formula 
would be: 96x72x18=331,776 cubic inches. 

As a gallon contains :i31 cubic inches; 331,776 divided by 231 
gives 1,436 gallons, which multiplied by 8.33 will give the 
weight of water in the cistern. 



Maxims and Instructions, 20 J 

CAPACITY OF CISTERNS. 

For round cisterns or tanks, the rule is: Area of bottom on 
inside multiplied by the height, equals cubical capacity. For 
instance, taking the last tank or cistern in the table: Area of 
24 inches (diameter) is 452.39, which multiplied by 12 inches 
(height) gives 5427. 6 cubic inches, and this divided by 231 
cubic inches in a gallon gives 23 gallons. 

Supposing the tank to be 24 inches deep instead of 12 
inches, the result v^^ould be, of course, twice the number of 
gallons. 

Rule foe Obtain^ii^g Coi^tekts of a Barrel ik Gallons. 

Take diameter at bung, then square it, double it, then add 
square of head diameter; multiply this sum by length of cask, 
and that proLiuct by .2618 which will give volume in cubio 
inches; this, divided by 231, will give result in gallons. 



WATER METERS. 

#ater meters, or measurers (apparatus for the measuremem; 
of water;, are constructed upon two general principles: 1, an 
arrangement called an '^ inferential meter'' made to divert a 
certain proportion of the water passing in the main pipe and 
by measuring accurately the small stream diverted, to infer, or 
estimate the larger quantity; 2, the yodtive meter; rotary 
piston meters are of the latter class and the form usually found 
in connection with steam plants. They are constructed on the 
positive displacement principle, and have only one working 
part — a hard rubber rolling piston — rendering it almost, if not 
entirely, exempt from liability to derangement. It measures 
equally well on all sized openings, whether the pressure be 
small or great; and its piston, being perfectly balai^^d, is 
almost frictionless in its operation. 

Constructed of composition (gun-metal) and hard rubber, it 
is not liable to corrosion. An ingenious stufiBng-box insures at 
all times a perfectly dry and legible dial, or the registering 



204 



Maxims and Instructions, 



WATER METERS, 
mecliaiiism which is made of a combination of metals especially 
chosen for durability and wear, and inclosed in a case of gun- 
metal. 

Fig. 99 is a perspective view 
of the meter, showing the in- 
dex on the top. It is shown 
here as when placed in position. 
The proper threads at the inlet 
and outlet make it easy of 
attachment to the supply and 
discharge pipes. 

The hard rubber piston (the 
only working part of the Me- 
ter), is made with spindle for 
moving the lever communicat- 
ing with the intermediate gear 
by which the dial is moved. 




Fig. 99. 



The water, through the continuous movement of the piston, 
passes through the meter in an unbroken stream, in the same 
quantity as with, the pipe to which it is attached whon the 
opening in the merer equals that of the service pipe; the appa- 
ratus is noiseless and practically without essential wear. 

"Points" Eelatii^g to Water Meters. 

In setting a meter in position let it be plumb, and properly 
secured to remain so. It should be well protected from frost. 

If used in connection Avith a steam boiler, or under any 
other conditions where it is exposed to a backpressure of steam 
or hot water it must be protected by a check valve, placed 
between the outlet of the meter and the vessel it supplies. 

It is absolutely necessary to blow out the supply pipe before 
setting a new meter, so that if there be any accumulation of 
sand, gravel, etc., in it, the same may be expelled, and thus 
prevented from entering the meter. Avoid using r^d lead in 
Piaking j>)ints. It is liable to vrork into the meter and cause 
Tx^uch annoyance by clogging the piston. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



20S 



WATER METERS. 



This engraving. Fig. ICO, shows the counter of the Meter. 
It registers cubic feet — one cubic foot being TtoV U. S. gallons 
and is read in the same way as tho counters of gas meters. 




Fig. 100. 

The following example and directions may be of service to 
those unacquainted with the method : 

If a pointer be between two figures, the smallest one must 
always be taken. 7fhen the pointer is so near a figure that it 
poems to indicate that figure exactly, look at the dial next 
below it in number, and if the pointer there has passed 0, then 
the .count should be read for that figure. Let it be supposed 
that the pointers stand as in the above engraving, they then 
read 28,187 cubic feet. The figures are omitted from the dial 
marked •^^oi^e," because they represent but tenths of one cubic 
foot, and hence are unimportant. From dial marked '^ 10,'^ 
we get 7; from the next marked *^ 100," we get 8; from the 
next marked *' 1,000," we get the figure 1; from the next 
marked '' 10,000," the figure 8; from the next marked *aOO,- 
000," the figure 2. 

The Fish Trap used in connection with water meters is an 
apparatus (as its name denotes) for holding back fishes, etc. 



2o6 Maxims ajtd Instructions, 



THE STEAM BOILEE mJECTOR. 

For safety sake, every boiler ought to have two feeds in order 
to avoid accidents when one of them gets out cf order, and one 
of these should be an injector. 

This consists in its most simple form, of a steam nozzle, the end 
of which extends somewhat into the second nozzle, called the 
combining or suction nozzle; this connects with, or rather 
terminates in, a third nozzle or tube, termed the ^^ forcer." 
At the end of the combining tube, and before entering the 
forcer, is an opening connecting the interior of the nozzle at 
this point with the surrounding area. This area is connected 
with the outside air by a check valve, opening outward in the 
automatic injectors, and by a valve termed the overflow valve. 

The operation of the injector is based on the fact, first de- 
monstrated by Gifford, that the motion imparted by a jet of 
steam to a surrounding column of water is sufficient to force it 
into the boiler from which the steam was taken, and, indeed, 
into a boiler working at a higher pressure. The steam escaping 
from under pressure has, in fact, a much higher velocity than 
water would have under the same pressure and condition. The 
rate of speed at which steam — taking it at an average boiler 
pressure of sixty pounds — travels when discharged into the 
atmosphere, is about 1,700 feet per second. When discharged 
with the full velocity developed by the boiler pressure through 
a pipe, say an inch in diameter, the steam encounters the water 
in the combining chamber. It is immediately condensed and 
ifs bulk will be reduced say 1,000 times, but its velocity remains 
practically undiminished. Uniting with the body of water in 
the combining tube, it imparts to it a large share of its speed, 
and the body of water thus set in motion, operating against a 
comparatively small area of boiler pressure, is able to overcome 
it and pass into the boiler. The weight of the water to which 
steam imparts its velocity gives it a momentum that is greater 
in the small area in which its force is exerted than the boiler 
pressure, although its force has actually been derived from the 
bpiler pressure itself. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



201 



THE STEAM INJECTOR. 



The following cut 101 represents the outline of one of the 
best of a large number of injectors upon the market, from 
which the operation of injectors may be illustrated. 




S. Steam jet. V Suction jet , C-D. Combining and delivery tube , R. Ring 
or auxiliary check , P. Overflow valve . O Steam plug. M. Steam valve 
and stem . N. Packing nut. K. Steam valve handle X Overflow cap 

Fig. 101. 

The steam enters from above, the flow being regulated by the 
handle K. The sl^cam passes through the tube S and expands 
in the tube V, where it meets the water coming from the suc- 
tion pipe. The condensation takes place in the tubes V and C, 
and a jet of water is delivered through the forcer tube D to the 
boiler. Connection passages are made to the chamber surrouncl- 
ing the tubes 0, D, and to the end of tube V. If the pressure 
in this surrounding chamber becomes greater than that of the 
atmosphere, the check valve P is lifted and the contents are 
discharged through the overflow. 

So long as the pressure in this chamber is atmospheric, the 
check valve P remains closed, and all the contents must be dis- 
charged through the tube D. 



2o8 Maxims and Instructions, 

THE STEAM INJECTOR. 

There are three distinct types of live steam injectors, the 
''simple fixed nozzle/'' the ''adjustable nozzle/' and the 
'* double/' The first has one steam and one water nozzle 
which are fixed in position but are so proportioned as to yield a 
good result. There is a steam pressure for every instrument of 
this type at which it will giv3 a maximum delivery, greater 
than the maximum delivery for any other steam pressure either 
higher or lower. The second type has but one set of nozzles, 
but they can be so adjusted relative to each other as to produce 
the best results throughout a long range of action; that is to 
say, it so adjusts itself that its maximum delivery continually 
increases with the increase of steam pressure. 

The double injector makes use of two sets of nozzles, the 
''lifter'' and *' forcer." The lifter draws the water from the 
reseryoir and delivers it to the forcer, which sends it into the 
boiler. All double injectors are fixed nozzle. 

All injectors are similar in their operation. They are de- 
signed to bring a jet of live steam from the boiler in contact 
with a jet of water so as to cause it to flow continuously in the 
direction followed by the steam, the velocity of which it in 
part assumes, back into the boiler and against its own pressure. 

As a thermodynamical machine, the injector is nearly perfect, 
since all the heat received by it is returned to the boiler, except 
such a very small part as maybe lost by radiation; consequent- 
ly its thermal efficiency should be in every case nearly 100 per 
cent. On the other hand, because of the facb that its heat 
energy is principally used in warming up the cold water as it 
enters the injector, its mechanical efficiency, or work done in 
lifting water, compared with the heat expended, is very low. 

The action of the injector is as follows: Steam being turned 
on, it rushes with great velocity through the steam nozzle into 
and through the combiniag tube. This action induces a flow 
of air from the suction pipe, which is connected to the combin- 
ing tube, with the result that a more or l:ss perfect vacuum is 
f(;rmed, thus inducing a flow of water. After the water com- 
mences to flow to the injector it receives motion from the jet of 
ste^m: it absorbs heat from the steam and finally condenses it^ 



Maxims and Instructions. 2og 

THE STEAM INJECTOR, 
and thereafter moves on into the forcer tuhe simply as a stream 
of water, at a low velocity compared with that of the steam. 
At the beginning of the forcer tube it is subjected only to 
atmospheric pressure, but from this point the pressure increases 
and the water moves forward at diminished velocity. 

^^ Points'' Relating to the Injectoe. 

In nine cases out of ten, where the injector fails to do good 
service, it will be either because of its improper treatment or 
location, or because too much is expected of it. The experience 
of thoroughly competent engineers establishes the fact that in 
almost every instance in which a reliable boiler feed is required, 
an injector can be found to do the work, provided proper care 
is exercised in its selection. 

The exhaust steam injector is a type different from any of 
the above-named, in that it uses the exhaust steam from a non- 
condensing engine. Exhaust steam has fourteen and seven- 
tenths (14.7) pounds of work, and the steam entering the 
injector is condensed and the water forced into the boiler upon 
the same general principle as in all injectors. 

The exhaust steam injector would be still more extensively 
used were it not for a practical objection which has arisen — it 
carries oyer into the boiler the waste oil of the steam cylinder. 

Some injectors are called by special names by their makers, 
such as ejecters and inspirators, but the term injectors is the 
general name covering the principle upon which all the devices 
act. 

The injector can be and sometimes is, used as a pump to raise 
water from one level to another. It has been used as an air 
compressor, and also for receiving the exhaust from a steam 
engine, taking the place in that case of both condenser and air 
pump. 

The injector nozzles are tubes, with ends rounded to receive 
and deliver the fluids with the least possible loss by friction and 
eddies. 

Double injectors are those in which the delivery from one 
injector is made the supply of a second, and they will handle 
water at a somewhat higher temperature than single ones wi^h 
fixed nozzles. 



210 Maxims and Instructions. 

POINTS RELATING TO THE INJECTOR. 

The motive force of tlie injector is fourd in the heat received 
from the steam. The steam is condensed and surrenders its 
latent heat and some of its sensible heat. The energy so given 
up by each pound of steam amounts to about 900 thermal units, 
each of which is equivalent to a mechanical f Dree of 778 foot 
pounds. This would be sufficient to rai^e a great many pounds 
of water against a very great pressure could it be so applied, 
but a large portion of it is used simply to heat the water 
raised by the injector. 

The above explanation will apply to every injector in the 
market, but ingenious modifications of the principles of con- 
struction have bften devised in order to meet a variety of re- 
quirements. 

That the condensation of the steam is necessary to complete 
the process will be evident, for if the steam were not condensed 
in the combining chamber, it would remain a light body and, 
though moving at high speed, would have a low degree of 
energy. 

Certain injectors will not work well when the steam pressure 
is too high. In order to work at all the injector must condense 
the steam which flows into the combining tube. Therefore, 
when the steam pressure is too high, and as a consequence 
the heat is very great, it is difficult to secure complete conden- 
sation; so that fur high pressure of steam good results can only 
be obtained with cold water. It would be well when the feed 
water is too warm to permit the injector to work well, to reduce 
the pressure, and consequently the temperature of the steam 
supplied to the injector, as low pressure steam condenses much 
easier, and consequently can be employed with better result. 
Throttling the steam supplied by means of stop valves will often 
answer well in this case. The steam should not be cold or it 
will not contain heat units enough to allow it to condense into 
a cross section small enough to be driven into the boiler. This 
is the reason why exhaust injectors fail to work when the 
exhaust steam is very cold. It also explains why such injectors 
work well when a little live steam is admitted into the exhaust 
sufficient to heat it above a temperature of 212°. 



Maxims and Instructions, 21 1 



POINTS RELATING TO THE INJECTOR. 

Leaks affect injectors the same as pumps, and in addition, 
the accumulation of lime and other mineral deposits in the jets 
stops the free flowing of the water. The heat of the steam is 
the usual cause of the deposits, and where this is excessive it 
would be well to discard the injector and feed with the pump. 

The efficient working of the injector depends materially upon 
the size of the jet which should be left as the manufacturer 
makes it; hence in repairs and cleaning a scraper or file should 
not be used. 

For cleaning injectors, where the jets have become scaled, 
use a solution of one part muriatic acid to from nine to twelve 
parts f)f water. Allow the tubes to remain in the acid until the 
scale is dissolved or is so soft as to wash out readily. 

The lifting attachment, as applied to any injector, is simply 
a steam jet pump. It is combined with the injector proper and 
is operated by a portion of the steam admitted to the instru- 
ment. Nearly all the successful injectors on the market are 
made with these attachments, and will raise water about 25 
feet if required, from a well or tank below the boiler level. 

Where an injector is required to work at different pressures 
it must be so constructed that the space between the receiving 
tube and the combining tube can be varied in size. As a rule 
this is accomplished by making both combining and receiving 
tubes conical in form and arranging the combining tube so that 
it can be moved to or from the receiving tube, and the water 
space thereby enlarged or contracted at will. The adjustment 
of the space between the two tubes by hand is a matter of some 
difficulty, however; at least it takes more time and patience 
than the average engineer has to devote to it, and the majority 
of the injectors in use are therefore made automatic in their 
regulation. 

'^J'he injector is not an economical device, but it is simple 
and convenient, it occupies but a small amount of space, is not 
expensive and is free from severe strains on its durability ; 
moreover, where a number of boilers are used in one establish- 
ment, it is very convenient to have the feeding arrangements 
separate, so that each boiler is a complete generating system ia 
itself and independent ot its neighbors. 



is 



212 Maxims and Instructions, 



ojAws of heat. 

Heat is a word freely used, yet difficult to defiiie. The word 
heat^^ is coramonly used in two senses: (1) to express the 
sensation of warmth; (2) the state of things in bodies which 
causes that sensation. The expression herein must be taken in 
the latter sense. 

Heat is transmitted in three ways — by conduction, as when 
the end of a short rod of iron is placed in a fire, and the oppo- 
site end becomes warmed - this is conducted heat; by convection 
(means of currents), such as the warming of a mass of water in 
a boiler, furnace, or saucepan: and by radiation, as that dif- 
fused from a piece of hot metal or an open fire. Eadiant heat 
is transmitted, like sound or light, in straight lines in evei»y 
direction, and its intensity diminishes inyersely as the square 
of the distance from its center or point of radiation. Suppose 
the distance from the center of radiation to be \, 'I, 3 and 4 
yards, tlie surface covered by heat rays will increase 1, 4, 9 and 
16 square feet; the intensity of heat will diminish 1, \, 1-9, 
and 1-16. and so on in like proportions, until the heat becomes 
absorbed, or its source of supply stopped. 

Whenever a difference in temperature exists, either in solids 
or liquids that come in contact with or in close proximity to 
each other, there is a tendency for the temperature to become 
equalized; if water at 100° be poured into a vessel containing 
an equal quantity of water at 50°, the tendency will be for the 
whole to assume a temperature of 75°; and suppose the tem- 
perature of the surrounding air be 30°, the cooling process will 
continue until the water and the surrounding air become nearly 
equal, the temperature of the air being increased in proportion 
as that of the water is decreased. 

The heat generated by a fire under the boiler is transmitted 
to the water inside the boiler, when the difference in the speci- 
fic gravities, or, in other words, the cold water in the pipes 
being heavier than that in the boiler sinks and forces the lighter 
hot water upward. This heat is radiated from the pipes, 
which are good conductors of heat to the air in the room, and 
raises it to the required temperature. That which absorbs heat 



Maxims and Instructions, ^ij 

LAWS OF HEAT, 
rapidly, and parts with it rapidly, is called a good conductor, 
and that which is slow to receiye heat, and parts with it slowly, 
is termed a bad conductor. 

The following tables of conductivity, and of the radiating 
properties of various materials, may be of service: 

Conducting Power of Various Substances.— Desprtiz. 

Material. Conductivity. 

Gold 100 

Silver 97 

Copper 89 

Brass 75 

Cast iron 56 

Wrought iron 37 

Zinc ... 36 

Tin 30 

Lead ... 18 

Marble 3.4 

f'ire clay .».. .,. , 1.1 

Water 0.9 

Radiating Power of Various Substances.— Leslie 

Radiating 
Material. Power. 

Lampblack 100 

Water 100 

Writing paper 98 

Glass 90 

Tissue paper 88 

Ice 85 

Wrought lead 45 

Mercury 20 

Polished lead ^ 19 

Polished iron , , 15 

Gold, silver .. 12 

Copper, tin 12 

From the above tables, it will be seen that water, being an 
excellent radiator, and of great specific heat, and iron a 
good conductor, these qualities, together with the small cost of 
the materials, combine to render them efficient, economic and 
convenient for the transmission and distribution of artificial 
heat. 



21^ Maxims and Instructions. 

LAV7S OF HEAT. 

By adopting certain standards we are enabled to define, com- 
pare and calculate so as to arrive at definite results, hence the 
adoption of a standard unit of heat, unit of power, unit of 
work, etc. 

The standard unit of heat is the amount necessary to raise 
the temperature of one pound of water at 3"-^° Fahr. on. degree, 
i, e., from 32" to 33°. 

Specific heat is the amount of heat necessary to raise the 
temperature of a solid or liquid body a certain number of 
degrees; water is adopted as the unit or standard of comparison. 
The heat necessary to raise one pound of water one degree, 
will raise one pound of mercury about 30 degrees, and one 
pound of lead about 32 degrees. 

Table of the Specific Heat of Equal Weights of Various 

Substances. 

Solid bodies. Heat. 
Wood (fir and pine) 0.650 

«' (oak) 0.570 

Ice 0. 504 

Coal , 0.280 

Charcoal (animal) '. 0.260 

" (vegetable) ... 0.241 

Iron (cast) 0.241 

Coke 0.201 

Limestone 0.200 

Glass 0.195 

Steel (hard) 0.117 

' ' (soft) 0. 116 

Iron (wrought) O.lll 

Zinc 0.095 

Copper (annealed) 0.094 

' ' (cold hammered) 0.093 

Tin 0.056 

Lead 0.081 

Liquids. 

Water 1.000 

Alcohol 0.158 

Acid (pyroligneous) 0. 590 

Ether 0.520 

Acid (acetic) 0.509 

Oil (olive) 0.309 

Mercury 0.033 



Maxims and Instructions, 2i^ 

LAWS OF HEAT. 

Qases, 

Hydrogen , 3.409 

Vapor of alcohol 0.547 

Steam , 0.480 

Carbonic oxide 0.245 

Nitrogen 0.243 

Oxygen 0.217 

Atmospheric air 0.237 

Carbonic acid 0.202 



THE STEAM PUMP. 

Jt is difficult to oyeresfcimate the 
importance, in connection with a 
steam plant, of the appliance 
which supplies water for the boil- 
er, not only, but a hundred other 
uses. Upon the steady operation 
of the pump depends the safety 
and comfort of the engineer, owner 
and employee, and indirectly of 
^* * the success of the business with 

which the '^ plant" is connected. Hence the necessity of 
acquiring complete knowledge of the operation of a device so 
important. 

Pumps now raise, convey and deliver water, beer, molasses, 
acids, oils, melted lead. Pumps also handle, among the gases, 
air, ammonia, lighting gas, and oxygen. Pumps are also used 
to increase or decrease the pressure of a fluid. 

Pumps are made in many ways, and defined as rope, chain, 
diaphram, jet, centrifugal, rotary, oscillating, cylinder. 

Cylinder pumps are of two classes, single acting and double 
acting. In single acting — in ejffect is single ended — in double 
acting, the motion of the cylinder in one direction causes an 
inflow of water and a discharge at the same time, in the other; 
and on the return stroke the action is renewed as the discharge 
end becomes the suction end. The pump is thus double acting. 




2i6 Maxims and Instructions. 

STEAM PUMPS. 

A direct pressure steam j)iinip is one in which the liquid is 
pressed out by the action of steam upon its surface, without the 
intervention of a piston. A direct acting steam pump is an 
engine and pump combined. 

A cylinder or reciprocating pump is one in which the piston 
or plunger, in one direction, causes a partial vacuum, to fill 
which the water rushes in pressed by the air on its head. 

Note. — A suction valve prevents the return of this water on 
the return stroke of the piston and a discliarge valve permits 
the outward passage of the fluid from the pump but not its 
return thereto or to the reservoir through the suction pipe. 

The force against which the pump works is gravity or the 
attraction of the earth which prevents the water from being 
lifted. This is shown in the fact that water can be led, or 
trailed, an immense distance, limited only by the friction, by 
a pump. 

Note. — It may be noted that the difference between a fluid 
and liquid is shown in the fact that tbe latter can be poured 
from one vessel to another, thus: air and water are both fluids, 
but of the two water alone is liquid : air, ammonia, etc., are 
gases, while they are also fluids, i. e,, they flow 

The idea entertained by many that water is raised by suction, 
is erroneous. Water or other liquids are raised through a tube 
or hose by the pressure of the atmosphere on their surface. 
When the atmosphere is removed from the tube there will be 
no resistance to prevent the water from rising, as the water 
outside the pipe, still having the pressure of the atmosphere 
upon its surface, forces water up into the pipe, supplying the 
place of the excluded air, while the water inside the pipe will 
rise above the level of that outside of it proportionally to the 
extent to which it is relieved of the pressure of the air. 

If the first stroke of a pump reduces the pressure of the air 
in the pipe from 15 pounds on the square inch to 14 pounds, 
the water will be forced up the pipe to the distance of 2i feet, 
since a column of water an inch square and '2\ feet high is equal 



Maxims and Instructions, 2IJ 

STEAM PUMPS. 

in weight to about 1 pound. Now if the second stroke of the 
pump reduces the pressure of the atmosphere in the pipe to 
13 pounds per inch, the water will rise another 1\ feet; this 
rule is uniform, and shows that the rise of the column of water 
within the pipe is equal in weight to the pressure of the air upon 
the surface of the water without. 

There are pumps (Centrifugal) especially designed for pump- 
ing water mingled with mud, sand, gravel, shells, stones, coal, 
etc., but with these the engine or has but little to do, as they 
are used mostly for wrecking and drainage. 

The variety of pattern in which pumps are manufactured 
and the still greater yariation in capacity forbids an attempt to 
fully illustrate and describe further than their general princi- 
ples, and to name the following general 

CLASSIFICATIOiq- OF PUMPS. 

1st. Pumps are divided into Vertical and HorizontaL 

Vertical Pumps are again divided into: 

1. Ordinary Suction or Bucket Pumps. 

2. Suction and Lift Pumps. 

3. Plunger or Force Pumps. 

4. Bucket and Plunger Pumps, 

5. Piston and Plunger Pumps. 

Horizontal Pumps are diyided into: 

1. Double-acting Piston Pumps. 

2. Single-acting Plunger Pumps. 

3. Double-acting Plunger Pumps. 

4. Bucket and Plunger Pumps. 

5. Piston and Plunger Pumps, 



2lB 



Maxims a7td Instructions, 



Fig. 103. 




A — Air Chamber. 

B— Water Cylinder Ca-p, 

C— Water Cylinder with Valves and Seats in. 

D— Rocker Shafts, each, Long or Short. 

E— Removable Cylinders, each. 

F— Water Piiton and Follower, each. 

ii— Water Piston Followers, eack 

G— Rocker Stand. 

H — Suction Flange, threaded. 

I— Discharge Flange, threaded. 

J— Intermediate Flanges, each. 

K— Water Cylinder Heads, each. 

J'-Concaves complete, with Stuffing Boxes, each 

M— Steam Cylinder, without Head, Bonnet and 

Valve. 
N — Stcavn Cylinder Foot. 
O— Crossbead Links, each. 

P— Steam Piston, complete with Rings and Fol- 
lower, each. 



Piston Head. 
H— ^team Piston Follower. 

Steam Piston Rings, including Sprine and 
Breakjoint. . 
Q— Sidt Water Cylinder Bonnet, each. 
K— Steam Chest Bonnet, each 
S-Steam Chest Stuffing Box Gland, each. 
T— Steam Slide Valve, each. 



U— Piston Rods, eacb. 

V — ^Cros-beads, each. 

W— Rocker Arms, each, Long or Short. 

X— Valve Rod Links, each. Long or Short* 

Y — Steam Valve Stenw,, each. 

Z— Steam Cylinder Heads, each, 

aa-Piston Rod Nuts, each. 

hh— Piston Rod Stuffing Glands, each, 

ii — Water Valve Seats, each/ 

jj— Rubier Valves, each. 

kk— Water Valve Stems, each. 

II— Water Valve Springs, each. 

gg— Removable Cylinder Screws, each* 

b— Steam Valve Stem Forks, each, 

c— Steam Valve Stem Fork Bolts, each* 

e— Valve Rod Link Bolts, each- 

d— Rocker Arm Pins, each. 

f- Crosshead Link Bolts, each, 

o — Collar Bolts, each. 

pp— Brass Steam Cylinder Drain Cocks, eaclW 

Water Packings, each. 

Brass Pi.Nton Rods, each. 

Bra.ss Lined Removable Cylinders, extra, eat 

Piston Rod Stuffing Q'^nd Bolts, each. 

Water Cylinder Cap Bonnets, each. 

Top Valve Caps, each. 

Valve Cap Clamps, each. 



In Figs. 103 and 103 are exhibited the outlines of the double 
acting steam pumo, which is undoubtedly the pattern most 
thoroughly adapted for feeding steam boilers, as it is equipped 
for the slowest motion with less risk of stopping on a center. 

From the drawing with reference letters may be learned the 
terms applied generally to the parts of all steam pumps: exam- 
ple: ^^ k " shows the water valve stems, '^ K '^ the water cylinder 
heads. 

It may be remarked that nearly all pump makers furnish val- 
uable printed matter, giving directions as to repairs, and best 
method of using their particular pumps — especially valuable 
are their repair sheets in which are given cuts of '^ parts'^ of 
the pumps. It were well for the steam user and engineer to 
request such matter from the manufacturers for the special 
pump they use. 



Maxims and Instructions, ^ip 

POINTS RELA.TING TO PUMPS. 
Blow out the steam pipe tlaorouglily with steam before con- 
necting it to the engine; otherwise any dirt or rubbish there 
might be in the pipe will be carried into the steam cylinder, 
and cut the yalyes and piston. 

Never change the valve movement of the engine end of the 
pump. If any of the working parts become loqse, bent or 
broken, replace them or insert new ones, in precisely the same 
position as before. 

Keep the stuffing boxes nearly full of good packing well 
oiled, and set just tight enough to prevent leakage without 
excessive friction. 

Use good oil only, and oil the steam end just before stopping 
the pump. 

It is absolutely necessary to have a full supply of water to the 
pump. 

If possible avoid the use of valves and elbows in the suction 
pipe, and see that it is as straight as possible; for bends, valves 
and elbows materially increase the friction of the water flowing 
into the pump. 

See that the suction pipe is not imbedded in sand or mud, 
but is free and unobstructed. 

All the pipes leading from the source of supply to the pump 
must be air-tight, for a very small air-leak will destroy the 
vacuum, the pump will not fill properly; its motion will be 
jerky and unsteady, and the engine will be liable to breakage. 

A suction air chamber (made of a short nipple, a tee, a piece 
of pipe of a diameter not less than the suction pipe and from 
two to three feet long, and a cap, screwed upright into the suc- 
tion pipe close to the pump) is always useful; and where the 
suction pipe is long, in high lifts, or when the pump is running 
at high speed, it is a positive necessity. 

Never take a pump apart before using it. If at any time 
subsequently the pump should act badly, always examine the 
pump end first. And if there is any obstruction in the valve, 
remove it. See that the pump is well packed, and that there 
are no cracks in pipes or pump, nor any air-leaks. 



220 Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO PUMPS. 

In selecting a pump for boiler feeding it is well to have it 
plenty large enough, and also these other desirable features: 
tew parts, have no dead points or center, be quiet in operation, 
economical of steam and repairs, and positive under any press- 
ure. 

Granted motion to the piston or plunger, a pump fails because 
it leaks. There can be no other reason, and the leak should be 
found and repaired. Leaky valves are common and should be 
ground. Leaky pistons are not so common, but sometimes 
occur. Eepairing is the remedy. Leaky plungers are common. 
They need re-turning. The rod must be straight as far as in 
contact with the packing. The packing around the plungers 
is sometimes neglected too long, gets filled with dirt and sedi- 
ment, and hardens and scores an otherwise perfect rod, and so 
leaks. 

The lifting capacity of a pump depends upon proper propor- 
tion of clearance in the cylinder and valve chamber, to displace- 
ment of the piston and plunger. 

An injector is a sample of ^jet jpnmjp — this may either lift or 
force or both. 

The most necessary condition to the satisfactory working of 
the steam pump is a full and steady supply of water. The pipe 
connections should in no case be smaller than the openings in 
the pump. The suction lift and delivery pipes should be as 
straight and smooth on the inside as possible. 

When the lift is high, or the suction long, a foot valve should 
be placed on the end of the suction pipe^ and the area of the 
foot valve should exceed the area of the pipe. 

The area of the steam and exhaust pipes should in all cases 
be fully as large as the nipples in the pump to which they are 
attached. 

The distance that a pump will lift or draw water, as it is 
termed, is about 33 feet, because water of one inch area 33 feet 
weighs 14.7 pounds; but pumps must be in good order to lift 
33 feet, and all pipes must be air-tight. Pumps will give better 
satisfaction lifting from 22 to 25 feet. 



Maxims and Instructions. 221 

POINTS RELATING TO PUMPS. 

In cold weather open all the cocks and drain plugs to prevent 
freezing when the pump is not in use. 

When purchasing a steam pump to supply a steam boiler, one 
should be selected capable of delivering one cubic foot of water 
per horse-power per hour. 

No pump, however good, will lift hot water, because as soon 
as the air is expelled from the barrel of the pump the vapor 
occupies the space, destroys the vacuum, and interferes with the 
supply of water. As a result of all this the pump knocks. 
When it becomes necessary to pump hot water, the pump should 
be placed below the supply, so that the water may flow into the 
valve chamber. 

The air vessel on the delivery pipe of the steam pump should 
never be less than five times the area of the water cylinder. 

There are many things to be considered in locating steam 
pumps, such as the source from which water is obtained, the 
point of delivery, and the quantity required in a given time; 
whether the water is to be lifted or flows to the pump; whether 
it is to be forced directly into the boiler, or raised into a tank 
25, 50 or 100 feet above the pump. 

The suction chamber is used to prevent pounding when the 
pump reverses and to enable the pump barrel to fill when the 
speed is high, 

Suction is the unbalanced pressure of the air which is at sea 
level i4TV per inch, or 2096.8 per square foot. 

When a valve is spoken of in connection with a pump it maj 
be understood that there may be several valves dividing and 
performing the functions of one. 

A simple method of obtaining tight pump- valves consists 
simply in grooving the valve-sheets and inserting a rubber cord 
in the grooves. As the valves seat themselves the cord is com- 
pressed and forms a tight joint. An additional advantage is 
that it prevents the shock ordinarily produced by rapid closing 
and prolongs the life of the valve seat. Ti^e rubber cord when 
worn can be easily and quickly replaced. 



222 Maxims and Instructions, 



CALCULATIONS EELATING TO PUMPS. 

To find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column 
of water, multiply the height of the column in feet by .434. 
Approximately, we say that every foot elevation is equal to ^ lb. 
pressure per square inch; this allows for ordinary friction. 

To find the diameter of a pump cylinder to move a given 
quantity of water per minute (100 feet of piston being the 
standard of speed), divide the number of gallons by 4, then 
extract the square root, and the product will be the diameter in 
inches of the pump cylinder. 

To find quantity of water elevated in one minute running at 
100 feet of piston speed per minute. Square the diameter of 
the water cylinder in inches and multiply by 4. Example: 
capacity of a 5 inch cylinder is desired. The square of the 
diameter (5 inches) is 25, which, multiplied by 4, gives 100, 
the number of gallons per minute (approximately). 

To find the horse power necessary to elevate water to a given 
height, multiply the weight of the water elevated per minute in 
lbs. by the height in feet, and divide the product by 33,000 (an 
allowance should be added for water friction, and a further 
allowance for loss in steam cylinder, say from 20 to 30 per cent. ). 

The area of the steam pidon, multiplied by the steam press- 
ure, gives the total amount of pressure that can be exerted. 
The area of the ivaier piston, multiplied by the pressure of 
water per square inch, gives the resistance. A margin must be 
made between the power and the resistance to move the piston 
at the required speed — say from 20 to 40 per cent., according 
to speed and other conditions. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gallons. Multiplying 
the area in inches by the length of stroke in inches will give 
the total number of cubic inches: divide this amount by 231 
(which is the cubical contents of a U. S. gallon in inches), and 
product is the capacity in gallons. 

The temperature 62° E. is the temperature of water used in 
calculating the specific gravity of bodies, with respect to the 
gravity or density of water as a basis, or as unity. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



223 



STEAM PUMPS. 

SIDE SECTION FRONT SECTION 





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oci 0000 000 obo I 

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oq 00000 00000 

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ooQooo 00 06 oOH 

O 0(5Q.OQj;>OoOO 

000000 0000 00 itzii 

<o 00 oo 000000 /^ 

^5£) 000 00 00 000 

d^o-opo o oopo o^ jvj, 
00 oo^o-oot5ooo^ 
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OOOOOOOOQOOO % 

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0000000 00000 I 

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GOOO O OOQOOOQ | 



-«^g. 104. 

Important stress has been laid upon keeping all floating 
objects, gravel, etc., away from the acting parts of the pump. 
In Fig. 104 is presented a cut of an approved strainer which 
can be removed, freed from obstruction, and replaced by simply 
slacking one bolt, the entire operation occupying one minute. 
The advantages of this strainer will be readily apparent. 



IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES RELATING TO WATER. 



There are some underlying natural laws and other data relat- 
ing to water which every engineer should thoroughly under- 
sband. Heat, water, steam, are the three properties with which 
he has first to deal. 



22^f Maxims and Instructions, 



IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES RELATING TO WATER. 
Weight of one cubic foot of Pure Water, 

At 32^^ F. -= 62.418 \ ounds. 

M 39° .1. == 62.425 

At 62° (Standard temperature) = 62.355 

At 212° = 59.640 " 

The weight of a cubic foot of water is about 1000 ounces 
(exactly 998.8 ounces), at tbe temperature of maximum density. 

1'he weight of a cylindrical foot of water at Q'l° F. is 49 lbs. 
(nearly). The weight of a cylindrical inch is 0.4533 oz. 

There are four notable temperatures for water, namely, 

32° F. , or 0° C. ^ the freezing point under one atmosphere. 
39° .1 or 4° = the point of maximum density. 
Q^° or 16°. 66 = the standard temperature. 
212° or 100° = the boiling point, under one atmosphere. 

Water rises to the same level in the opposite arms of a 
recurved tube, hence water will rise in pipes as high as its 
source. 

The pressure on any particle of water is proportioned to its 
depth beloio the snrface, and as the side pressure is equal to the 
downward pressure. 

Water at rest presses equally in all directions. This is a 
most remarkable property, the upward direction of the press- 
ure of water is equal to that pressing downwards, and the side 
pressure is also equal. 

Any quantity of water, however small, may be made to bal- 
ance any quantity, however great. This is called the Hydro- 
static Paradox, and is sometimes exemplified by pouring liquids 
into casks through long tubes inserted in the bung holes. As 
soon as the cask is full and the water rises in the pipe to a cer- 
tain height the cask bursts with yiolence. 

Water is practically non-elastic. A pressure has been applied 
of 30,000 pounds to the square inch and the contraction has 
been found to be less than one-tw'3lftli. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



225 



POINTS RELATING TO WATER. 

Tlie surface of icater at rest is horizontal. A familiar exam- 
ple of this may be noted in the fact that the water in a battery 
of boilers seeks a uniform level, no matter how much the 
cylinders may vary in size. 

A given pressure or blow im.pressed on any portion of a mass 
of water confined in a vessel is distriluted equally through all 
parts of the mass; for example^ a plug forced inwards on a 
square inch of the surface of water, is suddenly communicated 
to every square inch of the vesseFs surface, however large,, and 
to every inch of the surface of any body immersed in it. 

Weight a^d Capacity of Difeeeekt Stakdaed Gallon's 

OF Watek. <|p 



i 


Cubic Inches 
in a Gallon. 


Weiglit of a 
Gallon in 
pounds. 


Gallons in a 
cubic foot. 


Weight of a cub- 
ic foot of water, 
English standard, 
62.321 lbs. Avoir- 
dupois. 


Imperial or English. 
United States 

1 


277.274 
231. 


10.00 
8.33111 


6.232102 

7.480519 



STORING AND HANDLING OF COAL. 

The best method of storing coal is a matter of economy and 
needs the attention of the engineer. 

Coal, as it comes from the mine, is in the best possible con- 
dition for burning in a furnace; its fracture is bright and clean, 
and it ought to be preserved up to the time of using it in such 
manner as to avoid as much as possible any alteration of its 
condition so as to prevent deterioration. 

So far as actual experience goes it has been found that a 
brick buiding, with doable walls to promote coolness, with high 
narrow slits instead of windows, with ventilating holes along 
the bottom of the walls, having a high-pitched roof with over- 
hanging eaves, and holes for ventilation well sheltered under 
the eaves, and with ventilators along the edge of the roof, is 
best suited to keep the coal in the condition most nearly 
approaching that of the freshly mined. The floor of the build- 



226 Maxims and Instructions, 

STORING AND HANDLING OF COAL. 

ing should be preferably paved with brick on edge or flagstones; 
the doors should be large and kept open m damp weather, and 
closed when the weather is hot. 

Some persons recommend sprinkling the coal occasionally 
during the hot weather, but it is much better to wet down l:he 
paving all around the building outside, and the exposed floor 
of the building, as well as the walls inside and outside, and let 
the moisture of the evaporation have its effect upon the coal. 
It will be found to be amply sufficient for the purpose. 

It has been found long since that it is better to have coal 
sheds dark, as light assists greatly in impairing the fuel. 

The best arrangement for a boiler room floor is to have a coal- 
bin, paved wit&' stone flags, opening into the fire-room by a 
door, while the fire-room itself should be paved diagonally with 
brick, set on edge upon a concrete foundation, well rammed to 
within about three feet of the boiler front, and the remaining 
space should be floored with iron plates. 

The coal should be wheeled from the bins and dumped upon 
these plates, never on the brick floor. These plates should be 
laid on an incline of about an inch toward the boilers, and it is 
well to have a trough or gutter, of about six inches in wid h, 
and having a depth of about one and a half inches cast in them, 
at the edge lying nearest the boilers, so tnat the water from the 
gauge-cock, drip-pipes, and that from wetting down the ashes 
may run into it and drain into a proper sewer-pipe laid under 
the flooring. 



CHEMISTEY OF THE FURNACE. 

A careful estimase by a Broadway Chemist of the contents 
or constituents of a ton of coal ^iresents some interesting facts, 
not familiar certainly to unscientific minds. It is found that, 
besides gas, a ton of ordinary gas coal will yield 1,500 pounds 
of coke, twenty gallons of ammonia water and 140 pounds of 
coal tar. I^ow, destructive distillation of this amount of coal 
tar gives about seventy pounds of pitch, seventeen pounds of 
creosote, fourteen pounds of heavy oils, about B-iije and a talf 



Maxims and Instructions, 22^/ 

CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

pounds of naphtha yellow, six and one-third, pounds of naph- 
thaline, four and three-fourth pounds of alizarine, two and a 
fourth pounds of solvent naphtha, one and a lifth pound of 
aniline, seventy-nine hundredths of a pound of toludine, forty- 
six hundredts of a pound of anthracine, and nine-tenths of a 
pound of toluches — from the last-named substance being ob- 
tained the new product, saccharine, said to be 230 times as 
sweet as the best cane sugar. 

From an engineer's standpoint the main constituents of all 
coal are carbon and hydrogen; in the natural state of coal these 
two are united and solid ; their respective characters and 
modes of entering into combustion, are however essentially 
different. The hydrogen is convertable into heat only in the 
gaseous state; the carbon, on the contrary, is combustible only 
in the solid condition. It must be borne in mind that neither 
is combustible while they are united. 

There are, however, other elements existing in coal in its 
natural state, and new ones are formed during burning or 
combustion as will be noted in the succeeding paragraphs. 

For raising steam the process of combustion consists in dis- 
entangling, letting loose or evolving the different elements 
locked up in coal; the power employed in accomplishing this is 
lieat. The chemical results of this consumption of the fuels 
may be divided into four stages or parts. 

First stage, application of existing heat to disengage the con- 
stituent gases of the fuel. In coals this is principally mixed 
carbon and hydrogen. 

Second st-^-ge, application or employment of existing heat to 
s )parate the carbon from the hydrogen. 

Third stage, further employment of existing heat to increase 
the temperature of the two combustibles, carbon and hydrogen, 
until they reach the heat necessary for combination with the 
air. If this heat is not obtained, chemical union does not take 
place and the combustion is imperfect. 



228 Maxims and Instructions, 

CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

Fourth and last stage, the union of the oxygen of the air with 
the carbon and hydrogen of the furnace in their proper propor- 
tions, when intense heat is generated and light is also given off 
from the ignited carbon. The temperature of the products of 
combustion at this final stage depend upon the quantity of air 
in dilution. Sir H. Davy estimates this heat as greater than 
the white heat of metals. 

In the first stages heat is absorbed, but is given out in the 
last. When the chemical atoms of heat are not united in their 
proper proportions, then carbonic oxide, mixed carbon and 
hydrogen, and other combustible gases escape invisibly, with a 
corresponding loss of heat from the fuel. 

When the proper union takes place, then only steam, car- 
bonic acid and nitrogen, all of which are incombustible, escape. 

The principal products, therefore, of p«^rfect combustion are: 
steam, invisible and incombustible; carbonic acid, invisible and 
incombustible. 

The products of imperfect combustion are: carbonic oxide, 
invisible but combustible; smoke, partly invisible and partly 
incombustible. 

Steam is formed from the hydrogen gas given out by the coals 
combining with its equivalent of oxygen from the air. Smoke 
is formed from the hydrogen and carbon which have not 
received their respective equivalents of oxygen from the air, 
and thus pass off unconsumed. The color of the smoke depends 
upon the carbon passing off in its dark, powdery state. 

The heat lost is not dependent upon the amount of car- 
. bon alone, but also upon the invisible but combustible gases, 
hydrogen and carbonic oxide; so that while the color may 
indicate the amount of carbon in the smake, it does not indicate 
the amount of the heat lost; hence, the smokeless locomotive 
burning coke may lose more heat in this way than that arising 
from the imperfect burning of coal under the stationary engine 
boiler. 



Maxims and Instructions, 22g 

CHEMISTRY OF THE FURNACE. 

A practical and familiar instance of imperfect combustion is 
exhibited when a lamp smokes and the unconsumed carbon is 
deposited all about in the form of soot. When the evolving or 
disengagement of the carbon is reduced by lowering the wick 
to meet the supply of oxygen, the carbon is all consumed and 
the SJioke ceases. What takes place in a lamp also occurs in a 
furnace, so that the proper supply of air is a primary thing, 
relating to economy, both as regards its quantity and its mode 
of admission to a fire. 

The economical generation of heat is one thing, the use made 
of that heat afterwards is another. Combustion may be perfect, 
but the absorption of heat by a boiler may be inferior. 

The chief agents operating in the furnace are carbon, hydro- 
gen and oxygen, and their union in certain proportions produces 
other bodies, as water or steam, carbonic acid, besides others of 
less practical importance. < 

OxYGEK is an invisible gas, has no smell, and remains per- 
manently in receptacles, unchanged by time. It can be obtained 
in an experimental quantity by heating the chlorate of potash, 
and collecting the gas given off in a bladder or jar. It is a trifle 
heavier than com_mon air, i. e.,. 1.106 times and a cubic foot at 
32° temperature weighs 1.428 ounces. It is one of the most 
abundant bodies in nature, and is combined with many others 
in a great variety of ways. 

Carbon is one of the most interesting elementary substances 
in nature. It is combustible and forms the base of charcoal, 
and enters largely into mineral coal. It is a mineral capable of 
being reduced to a feathery powder, and is found in many dif- 
ferent forms. It is obtained by various processes: from oil 
lamps as lamp-black; from coal as coke, and from wood as 
charcoal; the mineral particles of carbon in a state of combus- 
tion render flame luminous from either gas, oil or candles. 

Carbon unites with iron to form steel, and with hydrogen to 
form the common street gas. Carbon is considered as the next 
most abundant body in nature to oxygen. In the furnace the 



2JO Maxims and Instructions, 

CHEMISTRY OB^ THE FURNACE. 

carbon of the fuel unites with the oxygen of the air to produce 
heat; if the supply of air is correctly regulated, there will be 
perfect combustion, but if the supply of air be deficient, com- 
bustion will be imperfect. 

Hydrogek is an invisible gas, and the lightest known body 
in the world, being many times lighter than oxygen. It is 
combustible and gives out much heat. In our gas establish- 
ments it is made in large quantities and combined with carbon 
for illuminating streets, shops and dwellings. It is the source 
of all common flame. When united with sulphur in coal mines 
it becomes explosive. By passing a current of steam through a 
hot iron tube partly filled with filings, hydrogen gas is given ofl! 
and burns with a pale yellow flame. 

The more hydrogen, therefore, there is in the fuel, the greatei 
in general is its heating power. But it must be borne in mind 
that the element of hydrogen is, nevertheless, to a greater or 
less degree neutralized by the other element, oxygen, when it ia 
present as a constituent of the fuel; since the afiinity of hydro- 
gen for oxygen is superior to that of carbon, and the oxygen 
saturated with hydrogen is converted into steam and rises in 
this form from the fuel bed without producing heat. Thus it 
is that the more oxygen there is in the fuel the less is its power 
for developing heat by combustion. 

Nitrogen" is also an elementary body. It neither supports 
life nor combustion; it is lighter than air and has no taste or 
smell. One cubic foot at 32° temperature weighs a trifle less 
than one ounce. 

Sulphur is also an elementary body, of a yellow color, brit- 
tie, does not dissolve in water, is easily melted, and inflamma- 
ble. It is also called brimstone or hv.rnstone, from its great 
combustibility. It burns with a blue flame, and with a peculiar, 
suffocating odcr. 

Carbonic Acid Gas is formed by the burning of sixteen 
parts of oxygen and six parts of carbon. Its specific gravity ig 
1.529; it is fatal to life, and it also extinguishes fire. 



Maxims and Instructions. ^jt 

CHEMISTRY OF THE FUENACE. 

Carbokic Oxide is a colorless^, transparent, combustible gas, 
wdich burns with a pale blue flame, as may be seen at times on 
opening a locomotive fire-box door. Its presence in a furnace 
is evidence of imperfect combustion from a deficient supply of 
air, as it indicates that only eight parts of oxygen instead of 
sixteen parts have united with six parts of carbon. 

Table. 

The following table exhibits the comparative amounts of 
water which can be, under perfect conditions, evaporated from 
the substances named: 

One pound burned. Water evaporated. 

Hydrogen 64.28 

Carbon (average of several experiments). . . .14.77 

Carbonic Oxide 4.48 

Sulphur 4.18 

Alcohol 13.40 

Oil gas 22.11 

Turpentine 20.26 

The last four substances are compounds, and the last three 
consist almost wholly, or chiefly of carbon and hydrogen. The 
total heating power of average coal is, it may be noted to advan- 
tage, about J 2. 83 pounds of water upon the same conditions as 
above described. Hydrogen, it is seen, stands pre-eminently at 
the head of the list for heating power, represented by the 
evaporation of 64^ pounds of water, whilst carbon, the next in 
order, and the staple combustible element of fuel, has only a 
heating power of 14f pounds of water. 



2J2 Maxims and Instructions. 



HEAT-PKOOF AND ORNAMENTAL PAINTS. 

Steam pipes, boiler fronts, smoke connections and iron 
chimneys are often so highly heated that tbe paint upon them 
burns, changes color, blisters and often flakes off. After long 
protracted use under varying circumstances, it has been found 
that a silica-graphite paint is well adapted to overcome these 
evils. Nothing but loiled linseed oil is required to thin 
the paint to the desired consistency for application, no dryer 
being necessary. The paint is applied in the usual manner 
witn an ordinary brush. The color, of course, is black. 

Another paint, which admits of some variety in color, is made 
by mixing soapstone, in a state of fine powder, with a quick- 
drying varnish of great tenacity and hardness. This will give 
the painted object a seemingly-enameled surface, which is dur- 
able and not affected by heat, acids, or the action of the atmos- 
phere. When applied to wood it prevents rotting, and it 
arrests disintegration when applied to stone. It is well knowu 
that the inside of an iron ship is much more severely affected 
by corrosion than the outside, and tliis paiyd lias proven itself 
to he a most efficient protection fro7n inside corrosion. It is light 
of fine grain, can be tinted with suitable pigments, spreads easi- 
ly, and takes hold of the fibre of the iron or steel quickly and 
tenaciously. 

Turpentine well mixed with black varnish also makes a good 
coating for iron smoke pipes. 

Much brighter and more pleasant appearing engine rooms 
can be made by making the surfaces white. Lime is a good 
non-conductor of heat and it has the further quality of prDtect- 
ing iron from rust, so it would appear that whitewash was as 
good a material with which to cover boiler fronts, smoke stacks, 
steam pipes, etc., as any other substance. 

To prepare whitewash for this purpose it is only necessary to 
add a little salt or glue to the water used for dissolving the 
lime, as either of these substances will make it stick readily and 
it cannot afterward be easily rubbed off; but perhaps the best 



Maxims and Instructions, 



^33 



HEAT-PROOF AND ORNAMENTAL PAINTS. 

;way to prepare the whitewash would be to boil a pound of rice 
until it has become the consistency of starch, all of the solid 
particles having been broken up by boiling, and add this solu 
tion to the solution of lime in water. 

This last preparation is also very good for outside work, for 
after it has been applied and has an opportlinity to dry, no 
amount of rain will wash it off and its appearance is almost 
equal to white paint, and no amount of heat ordinarily met 
with will discolor it, although the heat of the fire box doors, 
if it was applied in such place, would give it a brownish cast of 
color. Even the brick setting of a boiler looks very much bet- 
ter when nicely whitewashed than when of its natural color, 
and if the ceiling and walls of the boiler room are also white- 
washed the effect is quite pleasing, more healthful and conduces 
greatly to cleanliness. 

Any engineer who tries this, renewing the whitewash as fre- 
quently as he would paint, will give this plan of painting pipes 
and boiler front the preference over th3 use of any kind of 
black paint. 




Fig. 105. 



PRESSURE RECORDING GAUGE. 



This device is an ingenious mechanism 
actuated by clock work and the varying 
pressures of steam formed within the 
boiler; it records the time and the press- 
ure upon a revolving roll of paper and 
preserves an accurate account of the vary- 
ing conditions which have existed within 
the boiler. 

Th^ advantages derived from its use 
may be thus summarized : 1, It is a mon- 
itor constantly teaching the fireman to 
be careful to maintain an equal pressure 
of steam. 2, This uniform steam made 
possible by the use of the gauge is pro- 
ductive of the greatest possible economy. 



2^4 Maxims and Instructions^ 

PEESSURE RECORDING GUAGR 
3, The even strain maintained insures a long life to the boiler 
and a minimum of repairs. 4, It is the vindication of an 
attentive and careful fireman and allows him due credit for his 
skill and faithfulness, which is too often ill appreciated for 
lack of a reliable record. 

Although described as a boiler room fixture, where it is fre- 
quently found in position, the proper place for this admirable 
device is in the steam user^s ofl&ce, thus establishing a nerve 
connection, between engineer and owner, relating to the safety 
and economy of the power-plant to their mutual great advan- 
tage. 

■ 

HOKSE POWER AS APPLIED TO BOILEES. 

By general agreement a horse power as applied to steam 
boilers is thirty (30) pounds of feed water at a temperature of 
100 degrees Fahr. converted into steam in 1 hour at 70 pounds 
gauge pressure. 

The standard is all that can be asked because the same test 
will determine two things; first the steam making capacity of 
the boiler and second its evaporative efficiency, which is all 
that is necessary to know in determining the commercial 
rating of boilers. 

But it is a fact that, without an engine attached, there is no 
such thing as calculating the horse power of a boiler upon gen- 
eral principles. A well constructed engine with a given press- 
ure of steam upon a piston of a given area and moving at a 
certain velocity in feet per minute, will always and under all 
conditions develop the same power so long as the boiler is able 
to furnish a sufficient quantity of steam to keep up that press- 
ure; and it matters not whether the steam is taken from a boiler 
rated at 60 horse power or 30. 

An evidence of the fact that there is no standard rule for 
calculating the horse power of boilers that can be depended 
upon, is that no two engine builders send out the same sized 
boilers with the engine of the same rated power. Experience 
has taught them that to furnish steam sufficient to work their 
engines up to their ratings that a certain sized boiler is required, 
and what would be considered 30 horse power by one manufac- 



Maxims and Instructions. 2^^ 

HORSE POWER AS APPLIED TO BOILERS, 
turer might be considered 35 or more by another — the differ- 
ence being in the economy of the engine of using the steam, 
and not in the boiler for making it. 

Then, again, a boiler that might furnish a sufficient quantity 
of steam to work a certain type of engine up to 40 horse power 
without forcing the fire might, with another style of engine, 
in order to generate the same power and perform the same 
duty, require to be forced beyond the limits of safety or econo- 
my. Therefore, considering the varying conditions under 
which all steam boilers are placed, there is no such a thing as 
any reliable standard rule for calculating the horse power of 
boilers, but only an approxim-ate one at the best. 

Hence it is best to select an engine of a certain power, and 
then let the same manufacturers furnish a boiler to correspond 
with it; and so long as the two are adapted to each other and 
the boiler of sufficient capacity to work the engine up to its full 
ratings, it matters but little whether the boiler figures the same 
horse power or not. 

It has been found in practice that it is not good economy to 
carry pressure higher than eighty pounds in single cylinder 
automatic cut off engines. 

As pressures increase, it becomes possible to use more 
economical engines, reducing water consumption per horse 
power per hour, thus requiring a smaller amount of heating 
surface and grate surface, that is to say, a smaller boiler and 
furnace for a given power. 

For pressure between eighty and one hundred and twenty 
pounds, the compound engine gives the best results, while for 
higher pressures triple and quadruple expansion engines are 
the most economical. 

EuLE FOE Estimating Horse Pov^er of Horizontal Tub- 
ular Steam Boilers. 
Find the square feet of heating surface in the shell, heads 
and tubes, and divide by 15 for the nominal horse power. 

The office of a boiler is to make steam and its real efficien- 
cy or the measure of its utility to the purchaser is measured 



236 



Maxims and Instructions, 



HORSE POWER AS APPLIED TO BOILERS, 
by the amount of water it can turn into steam in a certain 
length of time and the amount of coal it requires to do this 
work. 

An ordinary 54^x16' boiler with forty ^' tubes, 25 sq. ft. of 
grate surface and 800 sq. ft. of heating surface, in a general 
way is a 75 h. p. boiler, but good practice will get from it 100 
h. p., and the very best modern engines 200 h. p. 



BOILER SETTmG. 

The method, either ill or good in which steam boilers are 
'^ set " or arranged in their brick work and connections, will 
yary the quantity of fuel used by as much as one-fifth ; hence 
the importance of knowing the correct principles upon which 
the work should be done. 







Fig. 106. 

The portion of the steam plant called ^' the boiler " is com- 
posed of two parts — the boiler and tlie furnace, and the latter 
may be considered a part of the '^ setting " as it is mainly 
composed of brick work. 

Two kinds of brick are used in boiler setting — the common 
brick for walls, foundatiois and backing to the furnace, and 
so-called fire-brick, which should be laid at every point where 
the fire operates directly upon the furnace and passages. 

Fire brick should be used in all parts of the setting which 
are exposed to the hot gases. It is better to have fire brick 
lining tied in with red brickwork, unless the lining is made 
13-^ inches thick, when it can be built up separate from out- 
side walls. This arrangement will require very heavy walls. 
As usual, but 9 inches fire brick liuing is used in the fireplace 



Maxims and Instructions, 2J7 

BOILER SETTING. 

and 4^ inches behind the bridge wall. Joints in the fire brick- 
work should be as thin as possible. 

Fig. 106 represents some of the different shapes in which 
ire brick are made to fit the side of the furnace. 'J'hey are 
called by special names indicated by their peculiar form, circle- 
brick, angle-brick, jamb-brick, arch-brick, etc. The common 
fire brick are 9"x4|"x2^" in size, as shown in the figure. 

The peculiar quality in fire bricks is their power to resist for 
a long time the highest temperatures without fusion; they 
should be capable of being subjected to sudden changes of tem- 
perature without injury, and they should be able to resist the 
action of melted copper or iron slag. Fire brick are cemented 
together with fire clay which is quite unlike the ordinary 
mortar which is most suitable for common brick. 

The setting as well as construction of boilers differs greatly, 
but in all the end to be sought for is a high furnace heat, with 
as little waste as possible, at the chimney end. To attain this 
there must be (1) a suflicient thickness of wall around the fur- 
nace, including the bridge, to retain as nearly as may be every 
unit of heat. (2) A due mixture of air admitted at the 
proper time and temperature to the furnace. (3) A proportion- 
ate area between the boiler and the surface of the grates for the 
proper mixing of the gases arising from combustion. (4) A cor- 
rect proportion between the grate surface, the total area of the 
tubes and the height and area of the chimney. 

The principal parts and appendages of a furnace are as fol- 
lows : 

The furnace proper or fire box, being the chamber in which 
the solid constituents of the fuel and the whole or part of its 
gaseous constituents are consumed. 

The grate, which is composed of alternate bars and spaces, to 
support the fuel and to admit the air. 

The dead 'plate, that part of the bottom of the furnace which 
consists of an iron plate simply. 

The mouth piece, through which the f ael is introduced and 
often some air. The lower side of the mouth piece is the 4^acl 
plate. 



2S8 



Maxims and Instructions, 



BOILER SETTING. 

The fire door: Sometimes the duty of the fire door is performed 
by a heap of fuel closing up the mouth of the furnace. 

Tlie furnace front is above and on either side of the fire 
door. • 

Tlie ash pit. As a general rule the ash pit is level, or nearly 
so, with the floor on which the fireman stands, and as for con- 
venient firing, the grate should not be higher than 28 to 30 
inches, the depth of ash pit is thereby determined. 

The ash pit door is used to regulate the admission of air. 

The bridge lualt. 

The comtustion or flame charrMr. 







!.. ' 




-1 


r-^ 


Fig. 107. 


= : ': : U 


1 











1 














































Fig. 108. 



Fig. no. 



The arrangement of the space behind the bridge wall is found 
usually to be in some one of the following forms: Level from 
bridge wall to back (Fig. 107). A square box. depth ranging 
from 15 inches to 6 feet (T^ig. 108). A gradual rise from 
bridge to .back end of boiler, where only six inches is found and 
generally circular in form (Fig. 109). A gradual slope toward 
back, leaving a distance of about 36 inches from boiler (Fig. 
110). 

The advocates of Fig. 107 claim that the ofiBce of the flame 
is to get into as clo:e contact with the bottom as possible, and 
this form compels the flame to do so. In burning soft coal this 
form is found to soot up the bottom of the boiler very badly. 



Maxims and Instructions, 2jg 

BOILER SETTING. 

Fig. 108 is followed more extensively than any other, the 
variations being the depth of chamber ; with depth generally 
from 36 to 40 inches. 

Mg. 109 has nothing to commend it, except in cases where 
bridge is too low. 

Fig. liO is followed a great deal and gives very good satisfac- 
tion. This form allows for the theory of combustion, namely, 
the expansion of the gases after leaving bridge wall. 

Space behind the bridge wall should be enlarged, as it will 
redure the velocity of fire gases, and thus have them give up 
more of their heat to the boiler. 

The bridge wall should not be less than 18 inches at bottom, 
but may be tapered off toward top to 9 or 13 inches. 

Setting of Water Tube Boilers. 

On page 67, Fig. 26, is exhibited a steam boiler with inclined 
tubes. The setting is this style of boilers is as follows: 

A brick wall in laid for the front with suitable openings for 
the doors of the furnace and ash pit, and protected on the out- 
side by a front of cast iron, and on the inside by a lining of fire 
brick. 

At the back of the grates a bridge wall is run up to the bot- 
tom of the inclined water tubes, so that the hot gases that arise 
over it must circulate among the tubes. 

A counter wall is laid on an incline from the top of the tubes 
to the back of the drum. This is laid on perforated plates or 
bars and is covered with fire brick. A wall is also built at the 
lower and back end of the tubes to carry them. 

Ba?k of the whole is the outer wall with openings for giving 
access to the tubes and smoke chambers. Side walls are raised 
to enclose the same and are arched at the top to come nearly in 
contact with the drum, which is carried partly by brackets and 
partly by the connections to the tubes. 

Points Eelating to Boiler Setting. 
Long and heavy boilers are best suspended from two beams 
or girders by two or three bolts at each end. Boilers over 40 
fet t long should have three or even four sets of hangers^ as tbe 
c?ase may require, 



240 Maxims and Instructions, 

BOILER SETTING. 

Side brackets resting on masonry may be used for sbort 
boilers. If nsed on long boilers, side plates or expansion roll- 
ers should be used at one end of boiler. There ought to be not 
more than two brackets on one side, so divided that the distance 
between them is about three- fifths of the total length of the 
boiler, or the distance from ends of boiler to center of bracket 
is equal to one-fifth the length of boiler. 

The side walls in boiler-setting should not be less than 
twenty inches with a two inch air space ; the rear wall may 
vary from 12 to 16 inches according to the size of the boiler ; 
the front wall 9 inches and the bridge wall may be from 18 
to 24 and perfectly straight across the rear of the furnace. If 
the boilers are supported by side walls, the outside walls should 
be not less than 13 inches thick and have pilasters where the 
boiler is resting. 

Mues touching the boiler above the water space should be 
emphatically condemned. 

Unless the boiler walls are very heavy, they should be stayed 
by cast or wrought iron bunch stays, held t6gether by rods at 
tops and bottoms. 

It is dangerous to have large spaces in which gases may col- 
lect for sudden ignition, producing the so-called '^^back draft.'' 

Connections between the rear end of the boiler and brick- 
work is best made with cast-iron plates or fire-brick, suspended, 
when boilers are suspended, as the expansion and contraction 
will destroy an arch in a short time. If resting on mud-drum 
stand, this connection can be arched, as in this case the rear 
end of boiler will remain stationary. 

If the drafts from the different boilers come in the same 
direction, or nearly so, no special provision is necessary, but if 
the draft enters from directly opposite directions a center wall 
should be provided. 

An advantage claimed for water in the ash pit is: by the 
propping of hot ashes and cinderg from the grate into thQ water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 241 

BOILER SETTING. 

steam is generated, whicli, in passing through the hot coal 
lying on the grate, is there divided into oxygen and hydrogen, 
thus helping the combustion. 

A dry brick will absorb a pound of water, and it is the water 
in the mortar that causes it to set, and harden. To prevent 
this loss of the water of crystalization, and give it time to 
harden and adhere to the brick, the brick must be well saturat- 
ed with water, before they are laid. 

Whenever steam is allowed to come in contact with mortar 
or cement an injurious effect is produced. The action of the 
steam is much more rapid than that of air and water, or water 
alone, when in abundance, as the effect of the steam in every 
case is to soften the mortar and penetrate to a greater depth 
than water could possibly do. 

The distance between the rear head of the boiler and brick- 
work should not be less than 12 inches. 

In setting steam boilers, allowance must be made for the 
expansion and contraction of the structure and this is usually 
done by placing rollers under the rear lug or side bearing of the 
boiler. Care should be exercised that the boiler rests are 
always in good condition so that they may move freely and not 
place the boiler in any danger of sticking and buckling. 



KlN^DLIKG A FURN^ACE FlEE. 

In kindling a coal fire in a furnace the phosphorus of a 
match inflames at so Iowa temperature (150 degrees Fahr.) 
that mere friction ignites it, and in burning (combining with 
oxygen of the air) it gives out heat enough to raise the sulphur 
of the match to the temperature of ignition (500 degrees Fahr.), 
which, combining in its turn with the oxygen of the atmos- 
phere, gives out sufficient heat to raise the temperature of the 
wood to the point of ignition (800 degrees Fahr.), and at this 
temperature the wood combines with oxygen supplied by the 
air, giving out a temperature sufficient to raise the coal to the 



242 



Maxims and Instructions, 



KINDLING A FURNACE FIEE. 

point of ignition (1000 degrees Fahr.), and the coal then com- 
bines with the free oxygen of the air, the ensuing temperature 
in the furnace varying, according to circumstances, from 3000 
degrees to 4000 degrees Fahr. Thus we see that the ignition 
of the coal is the last of a series of progressive steps, each 
increasing in temperature. 

And in each step it will be noted that a combination of 
oxygen is the essential connecting link and fhat the oxygen is 
supplied in each instance at the same average temperature — this 
fact contains a ^^ point '^ relating to supplying furnaces with so 
called ^' hot air/' 




Maxims and Instructions. 24^ 



GAS PIPE. 



^v 



Kg. 111. 




Kff. 112. 



244 Maxims and Instructions. 



PIPES AND PIPOTG. 

Next in importance after the skill necessary ibr the steam 
ged^rator and the engine, is the proper arrangement and care 
and management of the pipes and valves belonging to a steam 
plant. 

It is the first thing an engineer does in taking charge of a 
new place, k ascertain the exact course and operation of the 
water, steam, drain and other pipes. 

Examiners foi licensing marine and land engineers base their 
questions much moio to ascertain the applicant's knowledge of 
piping than is gene/ally known; hence the importance of the 
^•points'' in the succeeding pages relating to this subject. 

Pipes are used for very many purposes in connection with 
the boiler room, and of course vary in size, in material and in 
strength, according to the purposes for which they are designed. 
There are pipes for conveying and delivering illuminating gas; 
pipes for conveying and delivering drinking water, and for fire 
purposes; pipes for draining and carrying off sewage and sur- 
face water; ])ipes for delivering hot water under high pressure, 
for heating purposes and power; pipes for delivering live steam 
under pressure, for heating purposes and power; pipes for 
delivering compressed air, for purposes of power and ventila- 
tion; pipes for conveying mineral oils, etc. 

In Figs. Ill, 112 113 and 114 are given approximate sizes of 
gas pipe and boiler tubes, taken from the catalogue of one of 
the oldest steamfitting establishments in the country. It will 
be obser7ed that the size of gas pipe is computed from the 
internal diameter, while boiler tabes are estimated from the 
outside: thus, 3 in. gas pipe has an external diameter of 3 J 
inches, while 3 in. boiler tubes have an outside diameter of 3 
inches only. It may be noted that boiler-tubes are made much 
more accurately as to size than gas pipe; this is especially true 
of the outside surfaces which are much smoother in one case 
than in the other. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



H5 



BOILER TUBES. 




Fig. 113. 




Fig. 114. 



24(> 



Maxims and Instruction^, 



STTEFACES AND CAPACITIES OF PIPES. 



Sizes of 
Pipes. 


2.652 


m. 
3.299 


1 
in. 


in. 


1^ 
in. 

5.969 


2 
in. 


2^ 
in. 

9.933 


3 
in. 

10 99 


3^ 
in. 


4 
in- 


4^ 
in. 


5 

in. 


1. Outside cir- 
cumferences ot 
pipes in inches.. 


4.136 


5.215 


7.461 


12.56 


14.13 


15.70 


17 47 


2. Length of 
Pipe In feet to 
give a square 
foot of outsidf 
surface 


4.53 


3.63 


2.90 


3.30 


2.01 


1.61 


1.33 


1.09 


.954 


.849 


7.63 


.686 


3. Number of 
square feet of 
outside surface 
in ten lineal feet 
of Pipe 


2.21 


2.74 


3.44 


4.34 


4.97 


6.21 


7.53 


9.16 


10.44 


11.78 


13.09 


16.53 


4. Cubic in. of 
internal capaci- 
ty in ten lineal 
feet of pipe 


36.5 


63.9 


103.5 


179.5 


244.5 


402.6 


573.9 


886.6 


1186.4 


1527.6 


1912.6 2398.8 


5. Weight in 
lbs. of water in 
ten lineal feet of 
pipe 


1.38 


2.31 


3.75 


6.5 


8.8 


14.6 


20.8 


321 


43.6 


55.4 


69 3 


86 9 



Pipe manufactured from double thick iro.i is called X-strong 
pipe, and pipe made double the thickness of X-strong is known 
as XX-strong pipe. Both X-strong and XX-strong pipe are 
furnished plain ends — no threads, unless specially ordered. 

The table '^ Data relating to iron pipe " will b3 found espec- 
ially useful to the engineer and steam fitter. The size of pipes 
referred to in the table range from -J to 10 inches in diameter. 
In the successive columns are given the figures for the follow- 
ing important information: 

1. Inside diameter of each size. 

2. Outside diameter of each size. . 

8. External circumference of each size. 
4. Length of pipe per square foot of outside surface, 

5. Internal area of each size. 

6. External area of each size. 
7, Length of pipe containing one cubic foot. 
8. Weight per foot of length of pipes. 

9. Number of threads per inch of screw. 
10. Contents in gallons ( D". S. measure) per foot. 

11. Weight of water per foot of length. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



H7 



DATA 
Relati2!sG to Iroi^ Pipe. 



Weight of 

Water per 

foot of 

Length. 


a 


0(^^^oooi-t1'r?coiOTH^iOOloOr^cc»ooo 

OOOOr-rOiOi>-COT— IOtH'^00»OC0COi--»CiO 


1-1 1-1 G<? G<? CO 


'Ill 




cc<:o^^-'^>oooGOoo(^^ocoooooco 

OOwOOOOOi-IT^CO'^CDOOO'rrOiCOCOO 


o*P. 


T-l rH tH C^ C-C ^ 


No. of 
Threads 
per inch 
of Screw 


2>-0000^'H'T-lrH — rHOOOOOOQOOOOOQOOOOOQOOO 
C^T-ii-lr-iTHrHrHrHT-l 


So^ 
.^4:^^) 


o5 
»-5 




^1^ 




Length of 
Pipe con- 
taining one 
Cubic Foot. 




iOiO-X5T-l3:>COT-irOOGOT?OOCC>0 

10^ 0(^?cocoi-i-^iOcoO'r^05J>ooG<«oo 
>o — ^ (7^' CO CO '7<ic^oi^-r-^oii>'^c6ci ^ rA 

000»OJ>t^<:OCii>'-^COTHT— It— 1 
CO <r- -^ (74 r-i 


K-5 




r-i'r^COiOQOCOr-(00^'^COiOG^COCy'=:HCO^?>i> 

' ■ * * * r-5 (72 Sy* ^' CO 05 G<? »o' 05 ^" ri? 10 00 CO O 
T-ll-lt-l(7<CO^lOOC5 


H- 1 


CO 

o 


C<?C^OCO— iU02>«it-r-lOOOOrH'OrtJiO-+'^lO?>0 
i-i-tH-^OS-T^OO^CO-^OCOCVCOOCOir-QOCO— 1^ 

ooT-iT-i^£-'7;t-^c50coio::^x>7>-!ti(7?coio 


iHr-)CO-^£-C5:>'7^»OaiCX)OOOCOOO 
r-irHi-174COiOCOJ>- 


Length of 
Pipe per 
sq. ft. of 
Outside 
Surface. 


1 


lO^>'^??^-co-^ rHoo-H»ooi»oc5t-JO'!i^'*»o 

"rHt^OOCOOOt— lTH'7^0:>iO'^CO-7^?>'0'^aiiO 

•^O':oiocoo:>co0iocooc5:>ao2>'coioo^coco 


05^:-0'^co'^^c^>(^^l-lr-^r^ 


9 d ® 

5;^ H " 
5 fS el 

«3 


5 


(T^COrH'T^OS-'^iOCriT-lfT^-OCOJ-OOiOCOHHCOCOO 

^^-o:(^^lOc^ico^Hcococooi<:ocoo^^-'-HiOCi'-^o 

<?^C0THC0(7?r-.G^C5-rrO05i0rH?>--HQ0a5O'^O 

r^ tH (7^ (^i CO ^* 10 Z> CrJ Csj '^* ?^ CO* t- O CO 
rHTHrHr-lrH(7i(7/(?^COCO 


M 2 


1 

o 


-::H OOOOCO-^C5COOOiO lO lOCOCOCOCOiT- 


(§5* 


r-ir-irHr-i(r<iS<i:0'*^iOiOCOi-0Dcr. 


111 


QQ 

1 

t-1 


iHi-lT-l(7?<7?COrQ'^'TiOCOi!>OOOiO 



♦ The Standard U. S. gallon of 231 cubic inches. 



248 



Maxims and Instructions, 



^mt:liiii!'^^-^m,^^ 



PIPES AND PIPING. 
The division of process in the manufacture of pipe, takes 
place at 1^ inch, \\ inch and smaller sizes heing called butt- 
welded pipe, and J^ inch and larger sizes being known as lap- 
welded pipe; thio rule holds good for standard, X-strong and 
XX-strong. 

JOmTS OF PIPES AT^D FITTINGS. 

The accompanjdng illustrations represent certain joints, 
couplings and connections used in steam and hot water h-ating 
systems. 

For many years in the matter of pipe joints there has been 
little change. The cast-iron hub and spigot joint. Fig. 115, 

caulked with iron borings, is 
probably the oldest kind of joint. 
This is still generally adopted in 
hct water heating cf a certain 
class, and was formerly used with 
low-pressure steam. A fairly 
regular smooth internal service 
is obtained, and once made tight 
is very durable. Cast-iron flanged 
pipes have also heen a Icng time 
in use. These joints are made 
with a wrought-iron ring gasket, 
wrapped closely with yarn. Fig. 
116, which is sometimes dipped 
in a mixture of red and white 
lead. It is placed between the 
flanges, it being of such a diame- 
ter as to fit within the bolts by 
which the joint was screwed up 
and a nest or iron joint, B B, 
caulked outside the annular gas- 
ket between the faces of the 
flanges. 

The next step in cast-iron 
pj -^g^ flange pipe joints was the facing 

or turning up of the flanges and 
the use of a gasket of rubber, copper, paper or cement, with 




Fig. 115. 




Maxims and Instructions, 



249 




Fig. 117. 



PIPES AND PIPING. 

bolt£ for drawing the faces to- 
gether. These joints for cast iron 
pipes have not been changed ex- 
cepting for some classes of work 
where a lip and recess, Fig. 1 i 7, 
formed on opposite flanges, whioh |__| 
makes the internal surfaoes-, 
smooth and aid in ])reventing 
the gaskets from being blown out. 
The introduction of wrought 
iron \v elded pipes has diminished 
the use of cast-iron pipes for 
many purposes, especially in 
heating apparatus and other pipe systems. Its advantages are 
lightness, the ease w^ith which various lengths can be obtained 
and its strength. Inwrought-iron pipe work the general prac- 
tice in making joints between pipes is a wrought-iron coup- 
ling, Fig. 118, with tapered 
threads at both ends. The 
pipes do not meet at their ends, 
and a recess of about f inch or 
more long by the depth of the 
thickness of the pipes is left at 
every pipe end. A similar 
tapered thread is used in con- 
necting the cast-iron fittings, 
elbows, tees, etc.. Fig. 119, to the 
pipe, and a large recess is neces- 
sary in each fitting to allow for 
the tapping of the threads. Thus 
the inside diameter of the fitting 
is larger by \ inch than the out- 
side diameter of the pipe, and 
the internal projection of the 
thickness of the pipe and that of 
the thread of the fitting increases 
materially the friction due to the 
interior surfaces of pipe and ^'g, 120. 




$S0 



Maxims and Instructions. 



PIPES AND PIPING. 
fitting. This class of joint requires care in the tapping of the 
fittings and in the cutting of tapered threads on the pipen; 

much trouble is caused by an 
inaccurately cut thread, as it 
may throw a line of pipes sev- 
eral inches out of place and 
put fittings and joints under 
undue and irregular strains. 

The right and left threaded 
nipple, rig. 119, is used as a 
finishing connection joint and 
between fittings. Space equal 
to the length of the two threads 
is required between the two 
fittings to be connected in order 
to enter the nipple, and one 
or bcth fittings should be free 
to move in a straight line when 
the nipple is being screwed up. 
To make up this joint time 
and care are necessary. The 
Fig. 122. right threaded end on nipple 

should be first firmly screwed with the tongs or wrench into the 
right threaded end of fitting, then slacked out and screwed up 
again by hand until tight, when it is screwed back by hand, at 
the same time counting the number of threads it has entered 
by hand. The same is done with the left threaded end of nip- 
ple and fitting. If the right and left threads of nipple have 
counted the same number of threads, each thread, when mak- 
ing the joint up, should enter the fittings at the same time if 
possible, and particular care must be taken that the fittings are 
exactly opposite, to facilitate catching on, prevent crossing 
threads, and that no irregular strain comes on the nipple while 
being screwed up. 

In screwing up these nipples the coupling has to be turned 
with flats on the external surface to fit an internal wrench: 
m such cases the thread on nipple has one continuous 
taper. 




Maxims and instructions. 



^5^ 



PIPES AND PIPING. 

These special couplings are marked with ribs on the out- 
side to distinguish them. Fig. 120 represents another joint 
in wrought-iron piping known as the '^union/^ composed 
of three pieces and the washer. Unions are also made with 
ground joints, and the washer dispensed with. Radiator 
"valves are now generally connected by them, but if the hole 
m the radiator is not tapped accurately, the union when 
drawn up will not be tight, or if tight, the valve will not 
be straight. 

Fig. 121 shows right and left threaded nipple connecting 
elbow and tee with wrought-iron pipes. 

The flange union. Fig. 122, is another joint generally used 
on wrought-iron pipes above 4 or 5 inches in diameter in mak- 
ing connections to valves, etc., and on smaller pipes in positions 
where it is a convenient joint. This joint consists of two cir- 
cular cast-iron flanges with the requisite number of holes for 
bolts, and central hole tapped tapered to receive thread of pipe. 
The abutting faces of the flanges are generally turned and the 
holding bolts fitted into the holes. 



STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. 





Fig. 124. 

The heating by means of pipes through 
which are conveyed hot water and steam 
is a science by itself and yet one claiming 
some degree of familiarity by all engi- 
neers, steam users, and architects. 

In practice it requires a knowledge of 
steam, air and temperatures, of pressure 
and supply ; a familiarity with heat and heating surfaces and 
with all contrivances, appliances and devices that enter into the 



Fig. 123. 



2^2 Maxims and Instructions, 

STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING, 
warming and ventilation of buildings. So long as factories, 
public and private buildings are erected, so long will warming 
and ventilation keep progress with steam engineering and 
remain a part of the general mechanical science required of the 
supervisory and practical engineer. 

In what is called ilie system of open circulationj a supply 
main conveys the steam to the radiating surfaces, whence a 
return main conducts the condensed water either into an open 
tanh for feeding the hoiJer^ or into a drain to run to waste, the 
boiler being fed from some other source; the system of what is 
called closed circulation is carried out either with separate sup* 
ply and return mains, both of which, extend to the furthest 
distance to which the heat has to be distributed, or else with a 
single main, which answers at once for both the supply a'^d the 
return, either with or without a longitudinal partition inside it 
for separating the outward current of steam supply from the 
return current of condensed water. 

In either case suitable traps have to be provided on the return 
main,/(9f preserving the steam pressure withiyi the supply main 
and radiators. These two systems, in any of their modifica- 
tions, may also be combined, as is most generally done in any 
extensive warming apparatus. 

The system of closed circulation requires the boiler to be 
placed so low as will allow all the return pipes to drain freely 
back to it above its water-level. This condition has been mod- 
ified mechanically by the automatic '' trap,^' a device frequently 
employed for lifting from a lower level, part or all of the con- 
densed water, and delivering it into the boiler; it is, in fact, a 
displacement pump. 

The same result has been attained by draining into a closed 
tank, placed low enough to accommodate all the return pipes, 
and made strong enough to stand the full boiler pressure with 
safety, and then employing a steam pump, either reciprocating 
or centrif ul, to raise the water from this tank to the proper 
level for enabling it to flow back into the boiler, the whole of 
the circulation being closed from communication with the 
atmosphere. 



Maxims and Instrttctions, 



253 



STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. 






Fig. 125. 



Fig. 126. 



Mg. 127. 



There are two systems of steam heating, known as the direct 
and the indirect system. 

Direct radiating surfaces embrace all heaters placed within a 
room or building to warm the air, and are not directly connec- 
ted with a system of yentilation. 

Indirect radiation embraces all heating surfaces placed out- 
side the rooms to be heated, and can only be used in connection 
with some system of yentilation. 

For warming by direct radiation, the radiators usually con- 
sist of coils, composed of f-inch and 1-inch steam pipes, which 
are arranged in parallel lines and are coupled to branch tees or 
heads. In a few exceptional cases, radiators of peculiar shapes 
are specially constructed. In all cases the coils must have 
either vertical or horizontal elbows of moderate length, for 
allowing each pipe to expand separately and freely. Sometimes 
short lengths of pipe are coupled by return-bends, doubling 
backwards and forwards in several replications one above 
another, and forming what are called '^'^ return-bend coils,''' and 
when several of these sections are connected by branch tees 
into a compact mass of tubing, the whole is known as a '* box- 
coil.^' 

Steam and Hot Water heating have long been acknowledged 
as altogether most practical and economical in every way — and 
their universal adoption in all the better class of buildings 
throughout the country is positive proof of their superiority. 



2^4 Maxims and Instructions, 



STEAM AND HOT WATER HEATING. 




Fig. 128. Fig. 129. Hg. 130. 

The heat from steam is almost exactly indentical with that 
from hot water, and few can distinguish between the two sys- 
tems when properly erected. 

They are both healthful, economical and satisfactory methods 
of warming. They give no gas, dust nor smoke ; are automat- 
ically regulated, and therefore allow of an even and constant 
temperature throughout the house, whateyer be the condition 
of the weather outside. 

The circulation of the steam through the warming pipes is 
effected in an almost unlimited variety of ways, and the cause 
producing the circulation throughout the pipes of the warming 
apparatus is solely the difference of pressure which results from 
the more or less rapid condensation of the steam in contact with 
tlie riidiating surfaces. 

A partial vacuum is formed by this difference of pressure 
witliin the radiating portions of the apparatus, and the column 
of steam or of water equivalent to this diminution of pressure, 
constitutes the effective head producing the flow of steam from 
the boiler, at the same time the return current of condensed 
water is determined by the downward inclination of the pipes 
for the return course. 

Points Relating to Steam Heating. 

N"o two pipes should discharge into a T from opposite direc- 
tions, thus retarding the motion of both or one of the returning 
currents. This is called ''buttmg'^ and is one of the most 
Texatious things to encounter in pipe fitting. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



255 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 




Fig. 131. 



Fig. 132. 



Fig. 133. 



h 11 steam piped rooms should be frequently dusted, cleaned 
and kept free from accumulation of inflammable material. 

The use of the air valve is as follows: In generating steam 
from cold water all the free air is liberated and driven off into 
the pipe, with the air left in them, all of which is forced up 
Vj the highest point of the coils or radiators, and compressed 
equal to the steam pressure following it. Now, by placing a 
valve or vent at the return end of the pieces to be heated, the 
air will be driven out by the compression. Why the vent is 
p] aced at the return is, that the momentum of the steam, it 
being the lightest body, will pass in the direction of it, falling 
down into the return as it condenses, thus liberating the air. 
Otherwise, should the vent not work, and the air is left in the 
radiator, it will act as an air spriug, and the contents of the 
pipes left stationary will be the result; no circulation, no heat; 
and the greater steam pressure put on, the greater the chances 
are of not getting any heat; and thus a little device, with an 
o])ening no larger than a fine needle, will start what a ton of 
pressure would not do in its absence. 

If the drip and supply pipes are large there is very little dan- 
ger of freezing, provided suitable precautions are taken to leave 
tlte pipes clear. They should be blown through, when left, and 
the steam valve should be closed. There should also be a free 
cliance for air to escape in all systems of piping. 

No rule can be given relating to capacity for heating pipes 
and radiators which do not require to be largely modified by 
Burroundinfifs. • 



2^6 Maxims and Instructions. 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEaTING. 

The field of steam-heating would seem to be limitless — in one 
public building it required recently 480,000 dollars to meet the 
expenditures in this single line. As an example of warming 
on an extensive scale may be taken a large office in New York, 
of which the following are the particulars: 

Total number of rooms, including halls and vaults . 386 

Total area of floor surface sq. ft. 137,370 

Total volume of rooms cub. ft. 1,923,590 



A second example is furnished by the State Lunatic Asylum 
at Indianapolis : 

Length of frontage of building, more than. 2,000 lin. ft. 

Total volume of rooms 2,574,084 cub. ft. 

r indirect radiating sur- 

Warming J face 23,296 

Apparatus I Direct 10,804 

LTotal 34,100 sq. ft. 

(Grate area 180 sq. ft. 

Boilers, ...\ n^ating surface 5,863 sq. ft. 



The ^'overhead" system of heating with steam pipes has 
several advantages. 1. The pipes are entirely out of the way. 
2. They do not become covered with odds and ends of unused 
materials. 3. If they leak the drip fixes the exact location of 
place needed to be repaired. 4. The room occupied overhead 
cannot be well otherwise utilized, hence in shops the system has 
proved efficient. 

But for offices or store rooms the overhead system is not 
approved of owing to the heat beating down upon the occupants 
and causing headache. 

When overhead heating pipes are used, they should not be 
hung too near the ceiling. If the room be a high one, it is 
better to hang them below, rather than above, the level of the 
belts running across tlie room, and they should not be less than 
three or four feet from the wall. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



257 




STEAM HEATING. 

It is important to protect all woodwork or other inflammable 
material around steam pipes from immediate contact with them, 

especially where 
pipes pass 
through floors 
and partitions. 
A metal thimble 
should be placed 
around the steam 
pipe, and firmly 
fastened on both 
sides of the floor, 
in such a way as 
to leave an air 
space around the 
Fig. 134. steam pipe. 

For indirect radiating surfaces, the box coils are the forms 
most used. The chambers or casings for containing them are 
made either of brickwork, or often of galvanized sheet-iron of 
Ko. 26 gauge, with folded joints. The coils are suspended 
freely within the chambers, which are themselves attached to 
the walls containing the air inlet flues. Besides coils of wrought 
iron tubes, cast-iron tablets or hollow slabs, having vertical 
surfaces with projecting studs or ribs, have been extensively 
used for the radiating surfaces. 

As the amount of heat given off from the radiator cannot be 
satisfactorily controlled by throttling the steam supply, it is 
usual to divide all radiators into sections, each of which can be 
shut off from the supply and return mains, separately from the 
rest of the sections. This method of regulation applies to 
radiators for indirect heating as well as for direct. 

Vertical pipe coils, constitute a distinctive form of radiator 
now largely used. In these a number of short upright 1-inch 
tubes, from 2 feet 8 inches to 2 feet 10 inches long, are 
screwed into a hollow cast-iron base or box; and are either con- 
nected together in pairs by return-bends at their upper ends, 
pr else each tube stands singly with its upper end closed, a^d 



Maxims and Instructions, 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 

having a hoop iron partition extending up inside it from the 
bottom to nearly the top. The supply of steam is admitted 
into the bottom casting; and the steam on entering, being 
lighter than the air, ascends through one leg of each siphon 
pipe and descends through the other, while the condensed 
water trickles down either leg, and with it the displaced air 
sinks also into the bottom box. For getting rid of the air, a 
trap is provided, having an outlet controlled by metallic rods; 
as soon as all the air has escaped and the rods become heated 
by the presence of unmixed steam, their expansion closes the 
outlet. 

A thorough drainage of steam pipes will effectually prevent 
cracking and pounding noises. 

The windward side of buildings require more radiating sur- 
face than does the sheltered side. 

When floor radiators are used, their location should be deter- 
mined by circumstances; the best situations are usually near the 
walls of the room, in front of the windows. The cold air, 
which always creates an indraft around the window frames, is 
thus, to some extent, warmed as it passes over the radiators, 
and also assists in the general circulation. 

Water of condensation will freeze quicker than water that 
has not been evaporated, for the reason that it has parted with 
all its air and is therefore solid. 

W^hatever the size of the circulating pipes, the supply and 
drip pipes should be large, to insure good circulation; the drip 
pipes especially so. This is all the more necessary when the 
pipes are exposed, or when there is danger of freezing after the 
steam is shut off. 

It is important to see that no blisters or ragged pipes go into 
the return:, and also to make sure that the ends are not 
*' blurred in'^ with a dull pipe cutter wheel so as to form 
a place of lodgment for loose mq-tter in the pipe to stop 
against. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



259 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 




Fig. 135. 



Fig. 136. 



Fig. 137. 



Experiments recently made on the strength of bent pipes 
have developed some things not commonly known, or at least 
not recognized, that is, the strain on the inside of the angles, 
due to the effort of the in'pcs to straighten themselves under 
pressure. The problem is one of considerable intricacy, resolv- 
able, however, by computation, and is a good one for practice. 
In the experiment referred to, a copper pipe of 6f in. bore, -h 
in. thick, was used. The angle was 90 degrees, and the legs 
about 16 in. long from the center. At a pressure of 912 pounds 
to an inch, the deflection of the pipe was nearly f in., showing 
an enormous strain on the inner side, in addition to the 
pressure. 

Steam valves should be connected in such a manner that the 
valve closes against the constant steam pressure. 

Interesting experiments show that the loss by condensation 
in carrying steam one mile is 5 per cent, of the capacity of 
the main, and a steam pressure of seventy-five pounds 
carried in five miles of mains, ending at a point one-half 
mile from the boiler house only shows a loss of pressure of two 
pounds. 

In steam warming it is necessary to bring the water to a 
boiling point to get any heat whatever: in hot water warming, 
fl, low temperature will radiate a corresponding amount of beat. 



26o Maxims and Instructions, 

POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 

Never use a valve in putting in a low pressure apparatus if 
it is possible to get along without it. All the valves or cocks 
that are actually required in a well-proportioned low pressure 
apparatus are, a cock to blow off the water and clean out the 
return pipes, another to turn on the feed water. Of course the 
safety valves, guage cocks, and those to shut fire regulators and 
such as are a part of the boiler, are not included in this 
*^ point.'' 

The most important thing in connecting the relief to return 
pipes is, that it should always be carried down below the line, 
the same as all vertical return pipes. In connecting the reliefs, 
so that the lower opening can at any time be exposed to the 
steam, there will be the difficulty of having the steam going in 
one direction, and the water in another. 

The relief pipe should ^' tap " the steam at its lowest or most 
depressed points. It should always be put in at the base of all 
steam ^^ risers "' taking steam to upper floors. 

In leaving the boiler with main steam pipe, raise to a height 
that will allow of one inch fall from the boiler to every ten feet 
of running steam pipe; this is sufficient, and a greater fall or 
pitch will cause the condensed water in the pipe to make at 
times a disagreeable noise or ^^'^ gurgling.'' 

The flow pipe should never start from the boiler in a hori- 
zontal direction, as this will cause delay and trouble in the cir- 
culation. This pipe should always start in a vertical direction, 
even if it has to proceed horizontally within a short distance 
from the boiler. Reflection will show that the perfect appa- 
ratus is one that carries the flow pipe in a direct vertical line to 
the cylinder or tank; this is never, or but rarely possible, but 
skill and ingenuity should be exercised to carry the pipes as 
nearly as possible in this direction. 

The flow of steam ought not to be fast enough to prevent the 
water of condensation from returning freely. All the circulat- 
ing pipes should be lowest at the discharge end, and the incli- 
Tiation given them shoulcl not be less tlian one foot in fifty. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



261 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 




Fig. 138. 




Fig. 139. 





Fii^c. 140. 

The general rule is to lay the main 
pipes from the boiler so that the pipe will 
drain from the boiler. Where this is 
done it is necessary to have a drip just 
before the steam enters the circulation. 
This drip is connected to a trap, or, if 
Fig. 141. the condensed water is returned to the 

boiler, the drip is arranged accordingly. 

But it is the best practice to lay the main pipe with the low- 
est part at the boiler, so that the drip will take care of itself, 
and not require an extra trap, nor interfere with the return 
.circulation. 

When steam is turned into cold pipes the water of condensa- 
tion gets cold after running a short distance, and if it has to go 
through a small drip pipe full of frost it will probably bo frozen. 
Then, unless it is followed up with a pail of hot water, the 
whole arrangement will be frozen and a great many bursted 
pipes will result. Wheneyer turning steam on in a system of 
yery cold pipes, only one room should be taken at a time, and 
a pail of hot water should be handy so that if the pipe becomes 
obstructed it can be thawed immediately without damage. 

When pipes become extensively frozen there is nothing to do 
but take them out and put in now ones. 



262 



Maxims and Instructions, 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 



The manner in which a 
temperature too low to start 
rapid combustion in wood in 
steam pipes, operates in 
originating a fire is by first 
reducing the oxide of iron 
(rust) to a metallic condi- 
tion. This is possible only 
under certain external con- 
ditions, among them a dry 
atmosphere. Just as soon 
as the air is recharged with 
moisture, the reduced iron is 
liable to regain, at a hound. 




Fig. 142. 



Fig. 143. 



its lost oxygen, and in doing so hecome red hot. This is the 
heat that sets the already tindered wood or paper ablaze. 

Where there is no rust there is no danger from fire with a 
less than scorching temperature in the pipe or flue. Hence 
the necessity of keeping steam or hot water fittings in good 
order. 

The indirect system of heating is the most expensive to put 
in; as to the cost of providing nearly double the heating surface 
in the coils must be added the cost of suitable air boxes, pipes 
and registers. For a large installation, this is a serious matter, 
although for office warming the advantages gained on the score 
of healthfulness and greater efficiency of employees much more 
than counterbalance the extra expense. 

One horse power of boiler will approximately heat 6,000 to 
10,000 cubic feet in shops, mills and factories — dwellings 
require only one horse power for from 10,000 to 20,000 cubic 
feet. 

From seven to ten square feet of radiating surface can be 
heated from one square foot of boiler surface, i. e. the heating 
surface of the boiler and each horse power of boiler will heat 
240 to 360 feet of 1 inch pipe. 



Maxims and Instructions, 26j 

POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEAT. 

The proiession most nearly related to that of steara engineers 
is the working steam fitters^ occupation. Strictly speaking, the 
engineer should produce the steam, and it is the steam fitters' 
place to fix up all the steam pipes and make all the necessary 
connections: but where the steam plants are small, the engineei 
maybe steam fitter also: hence the introduction in this work 
of these *''' Points" which are necessary to be known for the 
proper care and management of any system of steam or hot 
water heating. 

The care and patience, the mental strain and not infrequently 
the physical torture incident to fitting up a complicated pipe 
system cannot adequately be set forth in words. 

It is stated to be a fact, that in high pressure hot water heat- 
ing the water frequently becomes red hot, pressures of 1000 to 
1200 pounds per square inch being reached, and when the cir- 
culation of the system is defective the pipe becomes yisibly red 
in the dark. 

Pipes under work benches should be avoided, unless there is 
an opening at the back to permit the escape of the heated air, 
which would otherwise come out at the front. 

When both exhaust and live steam are used for heating, 
many engineers prefer to use independent lines of pipe for each, 
rather than run the risk of interference and waste caused by 
admitting exhaust and live steam into the same system at the 
same time. Nevertheless, the advantages gained by being able 
to increase the heating power of a system in extremely cold 
weather by utilizing the entire radiating surface for high press- 
ure steam, are so great that it is probably better so to arrange 
the system of pipes and connections that this can be done. 

Double extra heavy pipe (XX) is used for ice and refrigerat- 
ing machines (see page 246"), as a general rule, makers of 
this class of machinery obtain but little satisfaction in the use 
of the ordinary thread joining and use special dies with 
uniform taper — both for couplings, fianges and threading the 
pipe itself. They do this to protect their reputation and 
guarantees. 



264 



Maxims and Instructions, 



POINTS RELATING TO STEAM HEATING. 

Welding toiler and other tubes. — The following is a good way 
in cases of emprgency and can be done on a common forge: 

Enlarge one end of the shortest piece, and one end of the 
long piece make smaller, then telescope the two about f of an 
inch. Next get an iron shaft as large as will go into the tube 
and lay across the forge with the tube slipped over it. Block 
the shaft up so that the tuhe irill hang down from the top of the 
shaft. By such an arrangement the inside of the tube will be 
smooth for a scraper. When the tube gets to a welding heat 
strike on the end of the short piece first, with a heavy hammer, 
then with a light and broad-faced hammer make the weld- 
Borax can be used to good advantage, but it is not necessary. 
The next thing is to test the tube, which can be done in the 
following manner: Drive a plug in one end of the tube, stand 
it up on that end, and fill it with water, if it does not leak the 
job is well done, if a leak exists the welding must be again 
done. 

Solid-drawn Iron Tubes : Calculated Bursting and Collapsing 

Pressures. 









BUKSTING 


Pkessure. 


Collapsing Pkessure. 


External 




Internal 










Diameter. 


Thickness. 


Diameter. 


Per Square 


Per Square 


Per Square 


Per Square 








Inch of 


Inch of 


Inch of 


Inch of 








Internal 


Section of 


External 


Section of 








Surface. 


Metal. 


Surface. 


Metal. 


Inches. 


Inch. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Tons. 


Lbs. 


Tons. 


n 


.083 


1.084 


7700 


22.4 


6500 


21.7 


n 


.083 


1.209 


6900 


22.4 


5800 


21.3 


H 


.083 


1.334 


6200 


22.4 


5200 


21.0 


If 


.083 


1.584 


5300 


22.4 


4300 


20 3 


2 


.083 


1.834 


4500 


22.4 


3700 


19.7 


2i 


.095 


2.060 


4600 


22.4 


3600 


19.0 


2i 


.109 


2.282 


4800 


22.4 


3600 


18.3 


22 


.109 


2.532 


4400 


22.4 


3100 


17.7 


3 


.120 


2.760 


4300 


22.4 


3000 


17.0 


3i 


.134 


3.232 


4200 


22.4 


2700 


15.7 


4 


.134 


3.482 


3900 


22.4 


2400 


15.0 


4 


.134 


3.732 


3600 


2y.4 


2100 


14.3 


4i 


.134 


4.232 


3200 


22.4 


1700 


la.o 


4| 


.134 


4 482 


3000 


22.4 


1600 


12 3 


6 


.134 


4 732 


2800 


22.4 


1400 


11.7 


H 


.148 


5.204 


2800 


22.4 


1200 


10.3 


6 




5.704 


2600 


22.4 


1000 


9.0 



Maxims and Instructions, 



26^ 



VENTILATION. 

The quantity of air for each minute for one person is from 
four to fifteen feet — and from one-half to one foot should be' 
allowed for each gas jet or lamp. 

Heated air cannot be made to enter a room unless means are 
provided for permitting an equal quantity to escape, and the 
best places for such exit openings is near the floor. 

For healthful ventilation the indirect system of steam heat- 
ing is by far the best yet devised, for it not only warms the 
room, but insures perfect ventilation as well. In this system, 
the air for warming the room is introduced through registers, 
having first been heated by passing over coils of pipe or radia- 
tors suitably located in the air ducts. There is a large volum'e 
of pure air constantly entering the room, which must displace 
and drive out an equal quantity of impure air. This escapes 
principally around the doers and windows, so tha^t not only is 
the ventilation effected automatically without the use ot special 
devices, but all disagreeable indraft of cold air is prevented. 

One of the cheapest and best methods of ventilation is to 
have an opening near the floor, opening directly into the flue, 
or some other outlet especially constructed for it, with hot 
water or steam pipes in this opening, A moderate degree of 
heat in these pipes will create a draft, and draw out the bad 
air. Only a few of these pipes are necessary, and the amount 
of hot water or steam required to heat them is too small to be 
worthy of consideration. 

The use of a small gas-jet, burning continuously, in a pipe 
or shaft has been found to be a most admirable method of ven- 
tilating inside rooms, closets and similar places where foul air 
might collect if not replaced by fresh. The following table 
exhibits the result of careful experiments made by Mr. Thomas 
Fletcher, of England, with a vertical flue 6 inches in diameter 
and 13 feet high: 

Table. 



Gas Burnt per 
Hour. 


Bpeed of Cur- 
rent per 
Minute. 


TotaJ Air Exhaus- 
ted per Hour. 


Air Exhausted per 

Cubic foot of 

Gaa Burnt. 


Temperature at 

outlet. Kormal 

sa'Fahr. 


Cubic Feet. 

8 

4 
8 


Feet. 

205 
245 
325 
415 


Cubic Feet. 

2,4b0 
2,940 
3,900 
4,980 


Cubic Foot. 

2,460 

1,470 

975 

622 


82" 

92' 

110" 

137' 



266 



Maxims and Instructiom, 



EXHAUST STEAM HEATING. 




Maxims and Instructions, 26^ 

VENTILATION. 

Taking the experiments as a whole, it will be seen that in a 
flue 6 inches in diameter, the maximum speed of current which 
Dan be obtained with economy is about 200 feet per minute; 
and this was realized with a gas consumption of 1 cubic foot per 
hour — 1 cubic foot of gas removing 2,460 cubic feet of air. 

It should, however, not be required of any system of heating 
to more than aid in ventilation. It is the architect's or build- 
er's performance to so arrange lower and upper openings to 
drive out the bad air. 

Heatii^g by Exhaust Steam. 

There are two methods of warming by steam heat — one with 
live steam direct from the boiler, and the other with exhaust 
steam. These two are frequently carried out in combination, 
and in fact generally so where exhaust steam is used at all for 
warming. 

In nearly all manufacturing establishments, office buildings, 
etc., the exhaust steam produced will very nearly, if not quite 
supply sufficient exhaust steam to furnish all the heat required 
for heating the building during average weather, although in 
extremely cold weather, a certain amount of live steam might 
be necessary to use in connection with the exhaust to supply 
the required amount of heat. 

A simple and convenient device operating upon the suction 
principle has been found to be most efficient. By this the 
exhaust steam is drawn almost instantly through the most 
extensive piping; preventing condensation, freezing, and ham- 
mering, after which it is condensed and purified, and fed back 
into the boiler by the means of a reciprocating pump. 

It is claimed that a given quantity of exhaust steam can be 
circulated by this vacuum system and uniformly distributed 
through double the amount of heating pipes than could be 
accomplished by the same quantity of exhaust steam when 
forced into the heating system by pressure. 

Fig. 144 is a well-tried system of heating by exhaust steam 
in which** 7" represents the steam exhaust pipe, with **6''" 
showing back pressure valve with weight to adjust amount of 
back pressure; '^4" '^ V are steam supply pipes to radiators; 
« 5 w « 5 w ^^Q risers; *' 9 *' ** 9 " are condensation return pipes 



268 



Ml 



axims 



and Instructions, 



HEATING BY EXHAUST STEAM, 
from the rtiJiators; '^8^^ is the pressure regulating 



valve from 

the boilers. Fig. 144 may also be said to represent the general 
method of piping used in steam and hot water heating, which 
is difficult of illustration owing to the fact that each locality 
where it is used requires a different adaptation. 



OAEE OF STEAM FITTINGS. 

Many steam fittings are lost through carelessness, particu- 
larly in taking down old work, but the great bulk are simply 
'*lost^' for lack of method in caring for them. This task 
properly falls upon the engineer, as he usually is entrusted with 
the selection and ordering of the necessary work. A great 
eaving in the bill of *' findings ^^ can be effected by proper 
attention. 

The same systematic care exercised over the other fittings 
tools, appliances, oil, fuel, etc., used or consumed in the en' 
gine and boiler room may be urged with equal emphasis. 

















M and 
Mill. 
















^in. 
















lin. 
















l^in. 
















13^ in. 


Elbows 


Tees. 


Nip- 
ples. 


Plugs. 


Redu- 
cers. 


R's 
and 
L's. 


Unions 


2iu. 
coup- 
lings. 



Fig. 145. 
Fig. 145 shows a case for keeping fittings, which will enable 
one to find any particular piece without a moment's delay. In 
this admirable arrangement it will be seen that the heavy 
fittings are all at the bottom, the light ones at the top. In the 
top row of all, the one-quarter and three-eighth inch fittings 
are placed, being so small that a partition may be put into that 



Maxims and Instructions. 



26g 



CARE OF STEAM FITTINGS, 
row of boxes, and then Lave plenty of room, and giving twice 
the capacity to that row of pigeon holes. 

Above this case, which is bnilt of one-inch boards, may be 
put a set of four cupboards, double doors being fitted to each, 
and thus making a door over each compartment in the fitting 
rack. The shelves run through these cupboards from end to 
3nd. and are not divi'^ed by vertical partitions. The necessary 
brass fittings are kept on these shelves, and the doors are 
secured by good locks. The lightest fittings are placed on the 
lower shelves in this cupboard, being in greatest demand. 

TOOLS USED m STEAM FITTING. 




Fig. 146 represents one form of a pipe 
cutter which is made to use by hand; 
cutters are also made for use by power, 
which are capable of cutting off pipes of 
immense size. In an engineers outfit of 
steam fitting tools 2 sets are advisable — 
one to cut pipe |th inch to 1 inch, and 
the other to cut 1 to 2 inch pipe. Figs. 
147, 148, represent different forms of 
pipe tongs — the former called '^ chain'* 
tongs which will readily hold three inch 
pipe. Fig. 149 represents a steam fitter's 
vice which will '' take " say, 2|- inch pipe 
down to -Jth. Fig. 150 shows a set of 
taps and dies for small bolts and nuts 
which is ordinarily to be found in a steam 
fitter's outfit although used very gener- 
ally by machinists and others. Fig. 151 
shows a pair of gas-pliers which are used 
by steam fitters in g^s pipe jobs. Fig. 
152 exhibits the old fashioned alligator 
wrench. 

In ice and refrigerating jobs of pipe 
fitting special tubes are used to assure a 
niceness of joints and fitting which is 
not called for in steam and w^-ter service. 



Fig. 149. 



210 



Maxims and Instructions, 



TOOLS USED IN STEAM FITTING. 




Fig. 147, 




Fig. 14a 



COCKS. 
The first means in the 
earliest times of steam engi- 
neering, for opening and 
shutting the passages in 
the pipes of steam engines 
were cocks? and these were 
all worked by hand and re- 
quired close attention. A 
boy named Humphry Potter 
being in charge of one of 
the cocks of !N"ewcomer's 
pumping-engines^ and desir- 
ing time for play, it is said, 
managed to fasten the lever- 
handles of the spigots by 
means of rods and string to 
F%- 149. the walking beam of the 

engine, so that each recurrent motion of the beam effected the 
change required. This was the first automatic valve-motiou. 




Maxims and Instructions, 



271 



TOOLS USED IN STEAM FITTING. 




Fig. 150. 




Fig. 151, 




VALVES. 

The valve is any de- 
vice or appliance used 
to control the flow of 
p. ^^^ a liquid, vapor or gas, 

through a pipe, outlet 
or inlet in any form of vessel. In this sense the definition in- 
cludes air, gas, steam, and water cocks of any kind. 

The bellows was probably the first instrument of which they 
formed a part. No other machine equally ancienfc can be 
pointed out in which they were required. 

By far the most important improvement on the primitive 
bellows cr bag was the admission of air by a separate opening 
— a contrivance that led to the invention of the valve, one of 
the most essential elements of steam, of water, as well as pneu- 
matic machinery. 

Valves and Cocks. — Generally described, a valve is a lid 
or cover to an opening, so formed as to open a communication 
in one direction and close it in another by lifting, turning, or 
eliding — among the varieties may be classed as, the cock, the 
slide-valve, the puppet- valve and the clack-valve. A commoij 
form of this valve is shown in Fig. 139, page 2G1. 



2^2 Maxims and Instructions. 

VALVES AND COCKS. 

An every day example of a yalve, and almost tlie simplest 
known, is that of an ordinary pump where the valve opens 
upward to admit the water and closes downward to prevent its 
return. 

A valve has a seat, whether it be a gate or circular valve, and 
is generally turned by a circular handle fitted to the spindle. 

Difference letween a coch and valve. — The cock is a valve, 
but a valve is not a cock; the cock is a conical plug slotted and 
fitted with a handle for turning the cone-shaped valve, with ita 
opening in line, or otherwise, with the opening of the pipe. 

Glohe Valve is a valve enclosed in a globular chamber. Fig. 
135. This, like many other valves, takes its name from it& 
shape. 

Globe valves, whenever possible, should be placed so that tJib 
pressure comes under the valve, or at the side, for if the valve 
should become loose from the stem (which they often do) if the 
pressure is on top, there would be a total stoppage of the steam. 

Relief Valve is a valve so arranged that it opens outward 
when a dangerous pressure or shock occurs; a vahe belonging 
to the feeding apparatus of a marine engine, through which the 
water escapes into the hot well when it is shut off from the 
boiler. 

Hinged Valves constitute a large class, as for example the 
butterfly valve, clack-valves, and other forms in which the leaf 
or plate of the valve is fastened on one side of the valve seat or 
opening. 

Valve-hracket is a bracket fitted with a valve. 

The Valve-chamber is where a pump valve or steam valve 
operates. 

Valve-coch, — A form of cock or faucet which is closed b^ 
dropping of a valve on its seat. 

Valve-coupUng is a pipe coupling containing a valve. 

V^lve-seat is the surface upon which a valve rest§. 



Maxims and Instructions. syj 

COCKS AND VALVES. 

Back pressure valves are ball or clack valves in a pipe which 
instantly assume the seat when a back pressure occurs. They 
are illustrated in ^^^6/' Fig. 144. Their name signifies their 
use — to maintain a constant back pressure in heating systems. 

Ball valve— a, faucet which is opened or closed by means of 
a ball floating in the water. It constitutes an automatic 
arrangement for keeping the water at a certain level. 

Bib-cock — a faucet having a bent-down nozzle. 

CJiech-valve — a valve placed between the feed pipe and the 
boiler to prevent the return of the water, etc. 

Brine-valve — a valve which is opened to allow water saturated 
with salt to escape. In marine service it is *^ a blow-off valve.'* 

Ball vidve — a valve occupying a hollow seat. These valvea 
are raised by the passage of a fluid and descending are closed 
by gravity. 

Angle valve is one which forms part of an angle, see Fig. 137. 

The dovhle-seat valve or double-beat valve presents two out- 
lets for the water. In the Cornish steam engine this is called 
the equilibrium-valvey because the pressure on the two is very 
nearly equalized. 

Three-way cocTc is one having three positions directing th« 
fluid in either of three directions. This is illustrated in Fig. 
138. The three-way valve is also illustrated en page 259, Fig. 
136. 

Four-tvay coch is one having two separate passages in th« 
plug and communicating with four pipes. 

Gate valve— B, valve closed by a gate. This is illustrated in 
Fig. 140. 

Swing or straight-way valve — ^this is shown in Fig. 141, page 
261. 

Throttle Valve, — This is the valve used to admit steam to 
the engine and so termed to distinguish it from the main stop 
valve located near the boiler — to throttle means to choke — 
hence the throttling of the steam. 

Rotary Valves are those in which the disc, or plug, or other 
device used to close the passage, is made to revolvo for opening 
or closing, the common stop cock being an illustration. 



2y4 Maxims and Instructions, 

COCKS AND VALVES. 

Lifting Valves are those in which the full cone or stopper is 
lifted from the valve seat by pressure from below, the poppet, 
and safety valves being examples. 

Pressure regulator valve — this is sometimes called a reducing 
valve and is illustrated in Figs. 142, 143, on page 262. It is 
designed to reduce the pressure from a high point in the boiler 
to a lower one in a system of piping, etc. 

Usually the smaller valves, not exceeding 1^ inch in diame- 
ter, are wholly of gun-metal; the larger are commonly made 
with cast-iron bodies and gun-metal fittings. The smallest 
valves, from |^ up to -J- inch inclusive, have the disk solid with 
the spindle, and have an ordinary stuffing-box with external 
gland. Valves of f inch and upwards have the disk loose from 
the spindle; up to 3 inch valves the spindles are screwed to 
work inside the casing; above that size the screwed portion is 
outside the casing. Above the 3-inch size the nozzles of the 
cast-iron bodies are generally flanged instead of tapped. 



STEAM FITTINGS. 

A few of the principal sorts have been illustrated in this work 
and still others will be described in the *^ Index'*'' at the close of 
the work. 

Fig. 123, page 251, illustrates an elbow with outlet. This is 
sometimes spelled with the capital L, and again as an ell. 

Fig. 124 shows a long nipple. 

Fig. 125, page 253, exhibits a husMngf used to reduce one 
size pipe in a line to another. 

Fig. 126 is a cross tee. This is frequently spelled with a 
capital T. 

Fig. 127 is a plug — used to stop apertures m plates or pipes. 

Fig. 128, page 254, illustrates a lock nut. 

Fig. 129 shows a T, as illustrating the difference oetween a 
T and a cross T, Fig. 126. 

Fig. 130 is a coupling. 

Fig. 131, page 255, represents a reducing coupling* 

Fig. 132 is an illustration of a pipe uyiion. 

Fig. 133 is a plain elbow (see also Fig. 123.) 



Maxims ajid InstrncHons. 



275 



STEAM PIPE AND BOILER COVERINGS. 

This subject relates to tlie radiation of heat, which, allows a 
reference to the laws of heat and tables of radiating power of 
various substances, as set forth on pages 212, 215. 

The importance of a protection of exposed surfaces from 
radiation of heat is now undisputed, and many experiments 
have determined very closely the relative value of the various 
nonconducting substances. 

Table of tlie Condcctikg Power of various substances. 



Substance. 


Conducting 
Power. 


Substance. 


Conducting 
Power. 


Blotting Paper 


.274 
.314 

.323 

.418 
.523 
.531 
.568 
.636 


Wood, across fibre 

Cork 

Coke, pulverized 

India Rubber 

Wood, with fibre 

Plaster of Paris 

Baked Clay 


.83 


Eiderdown 

Cotton or Wool, any ) 

density ) " 

Hemp, Canvas 


1.15 
1.39 
1.37 
1.40 


Mahogany Dust 


3.86 


Wood Ashes 


4.83 


Straw 

Charcoal Powder 


Glass 

Stone. 


6.6 
13.68 



By the above table may be judged the comparative value of 
different coverings; blotting paper with its confined air, stand- 
ing at one end of the list, stone at the other. It should be 
noted that the less the conducting power the better protection 
against radiation, 

A non-conducting coating for steam pipes, etc., used for 
many years with perfect satisfaction, can bo prepared by any 
steam user. It consists of a mixture of wood sawdust with 
common starch, used in a state of thick paste. If the surfaces 
to be covered are well cleaned from all trace of grease, the 
adherence of the paste is perfect for cither cast or wrought iron; 
and a thickness of 1 inch will produce the same effect as that 
of the most costly non-conductors. For copper pipes there 
should be used a priming coat or two of potter's clay, mixed 
thin with water and laid on with a brush. The sawdust is 
sifted to remove too large piecos, and mixed with very thin 
starch. A mixture of two-thirds of wheat starch with one-third 
of rye starch is the best for this purpose. It is the common 
practice to wind string spirally round the pipes to be treated to 



2'/6 



Maxims and Instructions, 



PIPE AND BOILER COVERINGS. 

secure adhesion for the first coat, which is aboufc l-5th of an 
inch thick. When this sets, a second and a third coat are suc- 
cessfully applied, and so on until the required thickness is 
attained. When it is all dry, two or three coats of coal tar, 
applied with a brush, protect it from the weather. 

Avery efficient covering may be made as follows: 1, wrap 
the pipe in asbestos paper — though this may be dispensed with; 
2, lay slips of wood lengthways, from 6 to 1*^ according to size 
of pipe — binding them in position with wire or cord; 3, around 
the framework thus con«tri7.cted wrap roofing paper, fastening 
it by paste or twine. J'or flanged pipe, space may be left for 
access to the bolts, which space should be filled with felt. Use 
tarred paper— or paint the exterior. 

While a very efficient non-conductor, hair or wool felt has 
the disadvantage of becoming soon charred from the heat of 
steam at high pressure, and sometimes taking fire. The follow- 
ing table, prepared by Chas. E. Emory, Ph. D., shows the 
value of various substances, taking wool felt as a unit. 

Table of Relative Valfe of Nok-Ooj!^dl"ctoks. 



Non-Conductor. 


Value. 


Non-Conductor. 


Value. 


Wood Felt 


1.000 

.833 
.715 
.680 
.676 
.633 
.553 


Loam, dry and open. . 

Slacked Lime 

Gas House Carbon 

Asbestos 

Coal Ashes. 

Coke in lumps 

Air space, undivided 


.550 


Mineral Wool No. 2 

Do. with tar, ... 


.480 
.470 


Sawdust 

Mineral Wool No. 1 

Charcoal 


.363 
.345 

.277 


Pine Wood, across fibre . 


.136 



LIKEAR EXPANSION OF STEAM PIPES. 

Wrought iron is said to expand 1-150,000 of an inch for each 
degree of heat communicated to it; to make the calculation 
take the length of the pipe in inches, multiply it by the num- 
ber of degrees between the normal temperature it is required to 
attain when heated, and divide this by 150,000. Suppose the 
pipe is 100 feet long, and its temperature zero, and it is desired 
to use it to carry steam at 3 00 pounds pressure — equal to a 
temperature of 338 degrees -multiply 100 feet by 12 to reduce 
it to inches, and by 338, the difference in temperature; divide 



Maxims and Insirucizons. 



^77 



LINEAR EXPANSION OF STEAM PIPES, 
this by 150,000, and the result will be 2.7 inches, which would 
be the amount of play that would be required, in this instance, 
in the expansion joint. 

rigs. 153 and 154 show a properly designed arrangement of 
steam connections for a battery of boilers. To the nozzles, 
risers are attached by means of flanges, and from the upper 

ends of these 





1 














I 

















c 


L 1 




B ^pMJfcaii^ 


H* 


.*s 






F 


F' 




1 










1 


'-. 


c 






Bf|«=4 


H^ 


4 






F 


^w 








H' 
































Figs. 153 and 154 
nearly so, in order that the valve may not trap water, 



risers pipes are 
led horizontal- 
ly backwards 
into the main 
steam pipe. In 
thishorizontal 
pipe, the stop 
valves, one to 
eachboiler,are 
placed. These 
valves should 
have flanged 
ends as shown, 
so that they 
may be easily 
removed, if re- 
pairs become 
necessary, 
without dis- 
turbing any 
other portion 
of the piping. 
Unlike the en- 
graving, the 
valve C should 
be arranged in 
another posi- 
tion : the 
stem should, 
of course, be 
horizontal or 



2y8 Maxims and tnstruciionL 

LINEAR EXPANSION OF STEAM PIPES. 
By this arrangement it will be seen that the movements of 
the boilers and the piping itself are compensated for by the 
spring of the pipes. The height of the risers should never be 
less than three feet, and when there are eight or ten boilers in 
one battery, they should be, if room permits, six to eight feet 
high, and the horizontal pipes leading to main steam pipe 
should be ten or twelve feet or more. 



THE STEAM LOOP. 

This is an attachment to a steam boiler, designed to return 
water of condensation. It invariably consists of three parts, 
viz.: the ''^ riser, ^' the '^ horizontal, ^^ and the ^"^drop leg," and 
usually of pipes varying in size from three-fourth inch to two 
inches. Each part has its special and well defined duties to 
perform, and their proportions and immediate relations decide 
and make up the capacity and strength of the system. It is, 
in fact, nothing but a simple return pipe leading from the 
source of condensation to the boiler, and, beyond this mere 
statement, it is hardly possible to explain it; it has, like the 
injector and the pulsometer pump been called a paradox. 

The range of application of the steam loop practically covers 
every requirement for the return of water of condensation. If 
used in connection with a steam engine, pump, etc., a separa- 
tor of any simple form is connected in the steam pipe as close 
as possible to the throttle. From the bottom of the separator 
the loop is led back to the boiler, and the circulation main- 
tained by it will dry the steam before it is admitted to the 
cylinder. 

There is necessary to its operation a slight fall in tempera- 
ture at the head of the loop, which is accompanied by a corre- 
sponding fall in pressure. The water accumulating in the 
lower end of the loop next to the separator, as soon as it fills 
the diameter of pipe, is suddenly drawn or forced to the hori- 
zontal by that difference in pressure. It is immaterial how far 
the water has to be taken back, or how high it is to be lifted. 
There is one system now in daily operation lifting the con- 
densed water over thirty-nine feet, and another lifting it over 



Maxims and Instructions, 



279 



THE STEAM LOOP. 
Bixty-three feet. The strength of the system is increased by 
length and height, the only limit to its operation being the 
practicability of erecting the necessary drop leg, the height of 
which depends on difference in pressures. 



HORIZONTAL 




Fig. 155. 



Fig. 155 is an illustration of its application to a radiating 
coil. To understand the philosophy of its action, and referring 
to the illustration, let us assume that all the valyes are open, 
and full boiler pressure is freely admitted throughout the 
steam pipe, coil and loop. Now, if the pressure were exactly 
uniform throughout the whole system, the water in the loop 
would stand at a on the same level as the water in the boiler. 
But, as a matter of fact, the pressure is not uniform through- 
out the system, but steadily reduces from the moment of leav- 
ing the dome. This reduction of pressure is due in part to 
condensation, and in part to friction, and although generally 
small, is always present in some degree. The pressure may be 
intentionally reduced at the valve on the coil, and reduction 
necessarily results from condensation within the coil itself. A 
still further reduction takes place through the loop, so that the 
lowest pressure in the whole system will bo found at a, the 
point in the loop furthest from the boiler, reckoned by the flow 
of steam 



28o Maxims and Instructions. 

THE STEAM LOOP. 
Now it is known that; water of condensation invariably works 
towards, and accumulates in, a ^^dead end/' This is due to 
the fact that, as already shown, the pressure is lower at the 
*'dead end'' than at any other point in the system, and, as a 
consequence, there is a constant flow, or sweep, of steam 
towards the point of least pressure, which flow continues as 
long as condensation goes on. This sweep of steam carries 
along with it all the water formed by condensation or contained 
in the steam, at first in the form of a thin film swept along the 
inner surface of the loop, and afterwards, when the accumula- 
tion of water is sufficient, in the form of small sings or pistons 
of water, which completely fill the pipe at intervals, traveling 
rapidly towards the dead end. The action of the steam sweep 
IS vastly more powerful than is usually supposed, and, of 
course, operates continuously and infallibly to deposit the water 
in the dead end as fast as accumulated. 

In practice, water will speedily be carried over by the loop 
and accumulate in the drop leg until it rises to the level t, 
which would balance the difference in pressure. As the loop 
will still continue to bring over water, it follows that as fast as 
a slug or piston of water is deposited by the steam on the top 
of the column at h, it overhalances the equilibrium and an 
equal amount of water is discharged from the hottom of the 
column through the chech valve into the hoiler. 

The result of the practical operation of many systems of this 
ingenious device show advantages as follows: 

1. Return of pure water to the boiler and saving the heat 
contained in said water. 

2. Preserving more uniform temperatures, thus avoiding 
the dangers due to expansion and contraction. 

3. Prevention of loss from open drains drips, tanks, etc. 

4. Maintaining higher pressure in long lines of piping, in 
jackets, driers, etc. 

5. Enabling engines to start promptly. 

6. Saving steam systems from water, thereby reducing lia- 
bility to accident. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



281 



BOILER MAKERS' TOOLS AND MACHINERY. 



Fig. 156 represents a pair of jack 
screws, l^hese are invaluable devices 
for use in boiler- shops, and also in 
establishments where ponderous ma- 
chinery has to be shifted or other- 
wise handled. 

But few machine tools are used in 
making steam boilers, and they are 
generally as follows : 




Fig. 156. 



1st. — The Rolls, operated either by hand levers or power; 
used for bending the iron or steel plates into circular form. 

2d. — A wide power planer for trimming the edges of the 
sheet perfectly straight and true. 

3d. — Heavy Shears for trimming and cutting the plates. 

4th. — A Power Punch for making the rivet holes. 

5th. — A Disc for making the large holes in the tube sheets 
to receive the ends of the tubes. 

6th. — Rivet heating furnaces and frequently steam riveting 
machines. 

The hand tools needed by boiler makers are equally few, 
consisting of riveting hammers and hammers for striking the 
chisels, tongs to handle hot rivets, chipping chisels used in 
trimming the edges of plates, cape chisels for cutting off iron or 
making holes in the sheets, expanders to set the tubes, and also 
drift pins to bring the punched sheet exactly in line. 

Fig. 157 exhibits an improved pattern of the well-known 
V)ol — dudgeon expander. 




Fig. 157. 



282 Maxims and Instructions. 



STEAM. 

Steam is water in a gaseous state ; the gas or vapor of water ; 
it liquifies under a pressure of 14. 7 and temperature of 212° F. 

Stemn is a joint production of the intermingling of water 
and heat. Water is composed of two gases which have neither 
color nor taste^ and steam is made up of the same two gases 
with the addition only of that mysterious property called heat 
by which the water becomes greatly expanded and is rendered 
invisible. The French have a term for steam which seems 
appropriate when they call it water-dust. 

This is what takes place in the formation of steam in a vessel 
containing water in frte communication with the atmosphere. 
At first, a vapor is seen to rise that sterns to come from the 
surface of the liquid, getting more and more dense as the water 
becomes hotter. Then a tremor of the surface is produced, 
accompanied by a peculiar noise which has been called the sing- 
ing of the liquid ; and, finally, bubbles, similar to air bubbles, 
form in that part of the vessel which is nearest to the fire, then 
rise to the surface where they burst, giving forth fresh vapor. 

The curious fact must be here noted that if water be intro- 
duced into a space entirely void of air, like a vacuum, it 
vaporizes instantaneously, no matter how hot or cold, so that 
of an apparent and fluid body there only remains an invisible 
gas like air. 

That steam is dry at high pressure is proved by an experi- 
ment which is very interesting. If a common match head is 
held in the invisible portion of the steam jet close to the nozzle, 
it at once lights, and the fact seems convincing as to complete 
dryness, as the faintest moisture would prevent ignition even 
at the highest temperature. This experiment proves dryness 
of the steam at the point of contact, but if throttling exists 
behind the jet, the steam supplied by the boiler may be in 
itself wet and dried by wire drawing. 

Dead steam is the same as exhaust steam. 

Live steam is steam which has done no work. 

Dry steam is saturated steam without any admixture of 
mechanically suspended water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



STEAM. 

High-pressure steam is commonly understood to be steam 
used in high-pressure engines. 

Low-pressure steam is that used at low pressure in condensing 
engines, heating apparatus, etc., at 15 lbs. to the inch or under. 

Saturated steam is that in contact with water at the same 
temperature; saturated steam is always at its condensing point, 
which is always the boiling point of the water, with which it is 
in contact; in this it differs from superheated steam. 

Superheated steam, also called steam-gas, is steam dried with 
heat applied after it has left the boiler. 

Total heat of steam is the same as steam heat. 

Wet steam, steam holding water mechanically suspended, the 
water being in the form of spray. 

Specific gravity of steam is .625 as compared to air under the 
same pressure. 

The properties which make it so valuable to us are: 

1. The ease with which we can condense it. 

2. Its great expansive power. 

3. The small space in which it shrinks when it is condensed 
either in a vacuum chamber or the air. 

A cubic inch of water turned into steam at the pressure of 
the atmosphere will expand into 1,G69 cubic inches. 

WATER HAMMER. 

The fact that steam piping methods have not kept pace with 
the demands of higher pressures and modern practice is evi- 
denced by the increasing number of accidents from the failure 
of pipes and fittings. 

There has not been, for the rapid increase of pressure used, a 
proportionate increase in strength of flanges, number and size 
of bolts used, and more generous provision for expansion and 
contraction. Valves and fittings also require greater attention 
in their design, construction and manipulation. 



284 Maxims and Instructions. 

WATER HAMMER. 

It is well known that tlie presence of condensed, water in 
pipes is a source of danger, but little is known of what exactly 
goes on in the pipe. We have the incompressible liquid, the 
expansive gas, and the tube with a '^ dead head '^ or dead end 
as it is called, or where the end of the pipe is closed. Seeing 
that the tube or pipe is capable of withstanding all the pressure 
that the steam can give, it is difficult to acc(iunt for the tre- 
mendous repelling force, which is, undoubtedly, brought into 
operation in explosions or ruptures of steam pipes carrying 
what are now comparatively low pressures. 

The cause of the bursting is undoubtedly water hammer or 
water ram, which accompanies large, long steam pipes, filled 
with condensed water. 

If steam be blown into a large inclined pipe full of water, it 
will rise by difference of gravity to the top of the pipe, forming 
a bubble; when condensation takes place, the water below the 
bubble will rush up to fill the vacuum, giving a How directly 
against the side of the pipe. As the water still further recedes 
the bubble will get larger, and move farther and farther up the 
pipe, the blow each time increasing in intensity, for the reason 
that the steam has passed a larger mass of water, which is forced 
forward by the incoming steam to fill the vacuum. The maxi- 
mum effect generally takes place at a ^^dead end.'* 

In fact, under certain conditions, a more forcible blow ia 
struck when the end of the pipe is open, as, for instance, when 
a pipe crowned upward is filled with water, one end being open 
and the steam introduced at the other. ' A bubble will in due 
time be formed at the top of the crown, when the water will 
be forced in by atmospheric pressure from one end and by steam 
pressure from the other, and the meeting of the two columns 
frequently ruptures the pipe. 

The remedy for this is simple, the pipes must be properly 
located so as to drain themselves or be drained by rightly loca- 
ted drip cocks. The drip should be the other side of the 
throttle valve, and if steam is left on over night this valve 
should be left open enough to drain out all the water. 



Maxims and Instructions, 28^ 



HAZARDS OF THE BOILER ROOM. 

Where there is great power, there is great danger. 

When the pressure is increased, the danger is increased. 

When the pressure is increased, diligence, care and scrutiny 
should be increased. 

During the twelve years between 1879 and 1891 there were 
recorded 2,159 boiler explosions; these resulted in the death of 
Z,\'l'6 persons, and in more or less serious injury to 4,352 
others. Besides these there were innumerable other accidents 
during the same period, caused by other means, which empha- 
sizes the gravity of this cautionary '' chapter of accidents." 

Every boiler constructed of riveted plate and carrying a high, 
head of steam, holds in constant abeyance, through the strength 
of a disruptive shell, a force, more destructive in its escaping 
violence than burning gunpowder. To the casual observer 
there is no evidence of this; and it is only when a rupture 
takes place of such a character as to liberate on the instant the 
entire contents of the boiler that we get a real demonstration of 
the fact. Unfortunately a steam boiler never grows stronger, 
but deteriorates with every day's age and labor, subjected, as 
it is, to all sorts of weakening influences; and fractures often 
occur, which, if not at once repaired, would speedily reduce the 
strength of the boiler to the point of explosion. 

In the case of a boiler we have, first, a vessel of certain 
strength, to resist strains; and second, expansive steam and 
water contained therein. It must be plain that if the strength 
of the vessel is superior to the internal pressure there can be no 
explosion, and also, on the contrary, if we allow the pressure to 
go above the strength of the vessel, that there must be a rup- 
turing and an explosion, but it will be in the weakest place of 
that vessel. 

Experiments by the most eminent men have failed to discover 
any mysterious gas formed by boiling water, or by any mixture 



286 Maxims arid In. tructions, 

STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 

of air and water. Boilers have been built for the express pur- 
pose of trying to explode them under various conditions of high 
and low water, and nothing in regard to the sudden generation 
of any gas has been discovered. Again, disastrous explosions 
that have occurred have been of vessels that contained no water 
and were not in contact with fire, flame or heated air, but were 
supplied by steam some distance away. 

The destructive efforts of the vaporization attendant upon 
explosions seem to be due to the subsequent expansion of the 
steam so foriied, rather than to the intensity of its pressure; 
low or high steam alone has very little to do with boiler explo- 
sions; nor high or low water necessarily. 

The one great cause of boiler explosion is the inability of the 
boiler to withstand the pressure to which it is subjected at the 
time, and this may be brought about by any one of the follow- 
ing causes, viz. ; 

1. Bad design, in which the boiler may not be properly 
strengthened by stays and braces; deficient water space, pre- 
venting the proper circulation of the water, 

2. Bad workmanship, caused by the punching and riveting 
being done by unskilled workmen. 

3. Bad material, blisters, lamination, and the adhesion of 
sand or cindeis in the rolling of the plate. 

4. By excessive pressure, caused by the recklessness of the 
engineer, or by defective steam-gauges or inoperative safety- 
valves. 

5. Overheating of the plates, caused by shortness of water. 
When water is poured on red-hot surfaces it does nut touch the 
surface, but remains in the spheroidal state at a little distance 
from it, being apparently surrounded by an atmosphere of 
steam. It assumes this state above 340'^; when the tempera- 
ture falls to about 288° it touches the surface and commences 
boiling. 



Maxims and Instructions, 28'^ 

STEAM BOILER EXPLOSIONS. 

6. By accumulation of scale, mud, or other deposit, which 
prevents the water gaining access to the iron. This causes the 
seams to leak, the crown-sheet to bulge or come down. 

One is unable to find any proof that boilers do generally 
explode at about starting time, nor is that statement, to the 
best of information, founded on any basis of fact, but was first 
affirmed by parties who had designed a boiler especially 
arranged to avoid that imaginary danger. 

No one supposes that inspection will absolutely prevent all 
explosions; but rigid inspection will discover defects that might 
end in explosion. 

Low water is dangerous from the fact that it leaves parts of 
the boiler to be overheated and the strength of iron rapidly 
decreases in such a case. In fact, an explosion caused by low 
water might be expected to be less disastrous than if the water 
was higher, other conditions being equal, from the fact of there 
being less water at a high temperature ready to flash into steam 
ali the moment of liberation. 

Testing new boilers under steam pressure is both dangerous 
and unwise — the hot water expansion test is just as efficient, 
less cosily and safe in every respect — hence, there is no occasion 
for a steam test. A manufacturer was testing a boiler in the 
way mentioned when a rivet in a brace blew out, and the con- 
tents of the bciler rushed out, striking a man in the face, and 
parboiling him from head to foot. Another who was inspect- 
ing the boiler, was struck on the head and enveloped in steam 
and water; another was also scalded from the shoulders down; 
another was injured about the arms; a fifth man was scalded 
a ad severely injured about the back. The apartment was so 
filled with steam that the victims could not be rescued until all 
tlie damage mentioned had been done to them. 

Danger from exploding steam pipes is greater than supposed. 
An inspe:tor in a pipe works was testing a tube by means of a 
double-action hydraulic pump; the pipe suddenly burst with 



288 Maxims and Instructions » 

HAZiVKDS OF THE BOILER ROOM. 

the pressure of 5000 pounds to the square inch, and the water 
striking the unfortunate man on his face, he was killed on 
the spot. 

There is a tendency on the part of engineers to trust too 
implicitly in their steam gauges. These are usually the only 
resort for determining the steam pressure under which the 
boiler may be working. But the best gauges are liable to err, 
and after long use to require a re-adjustment. It is fortunate, 
however, that the error is usually upon the safe side of indicat- 
ing more than the actual pressure. 

Any boiler that has been standing idle for a few weeks or 
months is a dangerous thing to enter, and no one should 
attempt it until it has been thoroughly ventilated by taking off 
all the man-hole and hand-hole plates and throwing water into 
it. This is due to the presence of a gas which is generated 
from the refuse and mud, or scale, which, to a greater or less 
degree, remains in all boilers. Contact with fire is certain to 
result in an explosion. Not long since a locomotive was in a 
roundhouse, where it had been waiting some weeks for repairs. 
Some of the tubes were split and a man was pulling them out. 
He had only removed one or two when, putting in his lamp to 
see what remained, there was a fearful explosion which shook 
the shop. There are many other places which are unsafe to 
enter when they have been long closed, such as wells, pits of 
any kind, and tanks. Precisely what the nature of the gas is 
no one seems to know, but it is assuredly settled that a man 
who goes into it- with a light seldom comes out unharmed. 

The gas most likely to fill idle boilers in cities is sewer gas, 
that gets in through the blow-off pipe, which is left open and 
generally connects with the sewer; hence, the connection with 
the sewer by the blow-off pipes should receive attention. 

Boilers are sometimes unexpectedly emptied of their contents 
by the operation of the principle of the syphon; a boiler is so 
piped that a column of water may be so formed as to draw out 
of the boiler its entire contents. Danger ensues if this is done 
while the boiler is being fired. 



Maxims and Instructions, 



28g 




rUEL OIL. 

The long experimental use of petroleum 
or natural oil as a combustible has devel- 
oped but one serious objection to its wide 
spread and popular adoption; that objec- 
tion arises from its liability to ignite and 
cause destruction by fire; but 

The Hazards of Fuel Oil may be 
remedied by the observance of the follow- 
ing rules adopted by a certain fire under- 
writers^ association: 

*' Vault to be located so that the oil it contains can burn with- 
out endangering property and have a capacity sufficient tc hold 
twice the entire quantity of oil the tanks within can contain. 

Location of vauU to be left to the approval of the Superin- 
tendent of Surveys. Distance from any property to be regu- 
lated by size of tank. 

Vaults to be underground, built of brick, sides and ends to 
be at least 16 inches thick and to be made water tight with 
hydraulic cement ; bottom to be water tight, concrete, dished 
toward centre, and inclined to one end so as to drain all over- 
flow or seepage to that end, said incline to be to the end oppo- 
site to that from which the tank is to be tapped ; top to be 
supported with heavy iron I-beams, with arches of solid brick 
sprung from one beam to its neighbors, and to have at least 
twelve inches of dirt over the masonry. 

Vault to be accessible by one or more large man-holes, which, 
when not in use, are to be kept locked by a large padlock of 
three or more tumblers, key to be held by some responsible 
party. 

A trough must run from one end of the vault to the other, 
directly under each tank, and in the same direction as the tank 
or tanks. 

Tank to be of boiler iron or steel, at least 3-16 inch in thick- 
ness, to be cold riveted^ rivets to be not less thai; 3-8 inch ii; 



2 go Maxims and Instructions. 

RULES RELATING TO USE OF FUEL OIL. 

diameter and not over 1 inch apart between centres; the entire 
outer surface of tank to have two good coats of coal tar or min- 
eral paint before the tank is placed in position. 

No tank shall be over 8 feet in diameter by 25 in length, 
nor shall any vault have over two tanks. 

When tank is set, the bottom of the tank must be 3 inches 
above the concrete floor of the vault, and must be in saddles of 
masonry not less than twelve inches in thickness, built from 
the concrete floor of the vault, said saddles not to be more 
than 3 feet apart between centres, and laid in hydraulic 
cement, with an opening through centre for drainage. 

Tank must incline 1 inch per 10 feet in length toward the 
end from which it is to be tapped, said incline of the tank to 
be opposite to the incline at the bottom of the vault. 

The filling pipe, man-hole, telltale or indicator, pump sup- 
ply connection, steam connection, overflow pipe and ventila- 
ting pipes, where they connect with tank, must be made 
petroleum tight by the use of litharge and glycerine cement. 

Flanges to make tank f inch in thickness to be riveted on 
the inside so as to furnish a satisfactory joint where connec- 
tions are made, must be used. 

Filling pipe connection must have gas-tight valve between 
the tank and hose coupling, which must be kept closed and 
locked unless the tank is being filled. Each tank must have 
ventilating pipes at least \\ inches in diameter, one of which 
must connect with one end of the top of the tank 
and must be in the form of an inverted J, a union to be placed 
in pipe just beloAV the bend, within which shall be placed a 
diaphragm of fine wire gauze ; the other ventilating pipe must 
be at the other end of the top of the tank and must be con- 
ducted to the inside of the smoke stack or into the open air 
at least 10 feet above the surface, so that all the gases that form 
in the tank will be constantly changed. 

Tank must have indicator to show height of oil in tank at 
all times, said indicator to be so arranged as to allow no es- 
capement of gases from tank. 



Maxims and Instructions, 2gi 

RULES RELATING TO USE OF FUEL OIL. 

All pipes leading from the tank to the pump or pfacfe of 
burning, must incline toward the tank, and have a fall of at 
least 2 feet from bottom of stand pipe to top of storage tank, 
and must be so constructed that the feed pipe from stand pipe 
to burners shall be entirely above burners, so that no pockets 
of oil can be formed in any one of the pipes between the mam 
tank, stand pipe, oil pump or place of burning. 

The vault shall be air tight as near as possible, and must 
have tvro ventilating pipes of iron of 4 inches diameter, both 
inlet and outlet pipes to reach within 6 inches of the bottom 
of the vault, the outlet ventilating pipe to rise above surface 8 
feet, and the inlet ventilating pipe to rise above surface 6 
feet. 

Syphon to be arranged so as carry out any seepage or leak- 
age into the vault, and discharge same upon the ground, 
where its burning would not endanger surrounding property.'* 

The following are a part of the rules adopted hy the German 
Government to prevent accidents in mills and factories: they 
are equally applicalle in all places where steam power is used: 

*' All work on transmissions, especially the cleaning and lub- 
ricating of shafts, bearings and pulleys, as well as the binding, 
lacing, shipping and unshipping of belts, must be performed 
only by men especially instructed in or charged with such 
labors. Females and boys are not permitted to do this work. 

The lacing, binding or packing of belts, if they lie upon 
either shafting or pulleys during the operation, must be strictly 
prohibited. Daring the lacing and connecting of belts, strict 
attention is to be paid to their removal from revolving parts, 
either by hanging them upon a hook fastened to the ceiling, 
or in any other practical manner ; the same applies to, smaller 
belts which are occasionally unshipped and run idle. 

While the shafts are in motion they are to be lubricated, or 
the lubricating devices examined only when observing the fol- 
lowing rules : (1) The person performing this labor must either 
do it while standing upon the floor, pr by the use of (2) firmly 



2g2 Maxims and Instructions, 

GOVERNMENT RULES TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS. 

located stands on steps, especially constructed for the purpose, 
so as to afford a good and substantial footing for the workman ; 
(3) firmly constructed sliding ladders, running on bars ; (4) 
sufficiently high and strong ladders, especially constructed for 
this purpose, which by appropriate safeguards (hooks above oi' 
iron points below) afford security against slipping. 

All shaft bearings are to be provided with automatic lubrica- 
ting apparatus. 

Only after the engineer has given the well -understood signal, 
plainly audible in the workrooms, is the engine to be 
started. 

If any work other than lubricating and cleaning of the shaft- 
ing is to be performed while the engine is standing idle, the 
engineer is to be notified of it, and in what room or place such 
work is going on, and he must then allow the engine to remain 
idle until he has been informed by proper parties that the work 
is finished. 

Plainly yisible and easy accessible alarm apparatus shall be 
located at proper places in the workrooms, to be used in case 
of accident to signal to the engineer to stop the engine at 
once. 

All projecting wedges, Tceys, set-screws, nuts, grooves or other 
parts of machinery, havhig sharp edges, shall he substantially 
covered. 

All belts or ropes which pass from the shafting of one story 
to that of another shall be guarded by fencing or casing of 
wood, sheet-iron or wire netting four feet, 6 inches high. 

The belts passing from shafting in the story underneath and 
actuating machinery in the room overhead, thereby passing 
through the ceiling must be enclosed with proper casing or 
netting corresponding in heigth from the floor to the construc- 
tion of the machine. When the construction of the machine 
does not admit of the introduction of casing, then, at least, 
the opening in the floor through which the belt or rope passes 
§hould be inclosccl with a low casing at least four inches high. 



Maxims and Instructions, 2gj 



GOVERNMENT RULES TO PREVENT ACCIDENTS. 
Fixed shafts^ as well as ordinary shafts, pulleys and fly- 
wheels, running at a little height above the floor, and being 
svithin the locality where work is performed, shall be securely 
covered.'^ 

The most simple and efficient of all substances for fire ex- 
tinguishment is sulphur. This, by heat, absorbs oxygen and 
forms sulphurous acid, the fumes of which are much heavier 
tiaan the air. The quantity required would be small. Besides 
sulphur, which gives every satisfaction, both in its effects and 
ficom its low cost, we find a similar property in another active 
and cheap substance, ammonia. An automatic sulphur extin- 
guishing apparatus can be make of various forms. 

If night repairs, Sunday, or any other work which requires 
t!ie use of artificial light (especially portable lights of any kind) 
becomes necessary, more than one man should be employed, 
one of whom should be capable of starting the engine or pump 
i)istantly in case of fire. 

In guarding against explosion it is conceded that the main 
r-^liance is to have the boiler made strong enough to stand both 
t'le regular load or any unexpected strain caused by the stop- 
f age of the engine ; it is also the tendency of the times to 
p roceed towards higher and higher figures in steam pressure, 
until now it is not nnfrequent to see 150 lbs. to the square 
inch indicated by the gauge ; the larger the boiler, also, the 
more economically it can be run and this, as in the two cases 
before cited, requires extra precautions in building the boiler 
with great regard to strength in every part 

The following rules posted in a certain . factory aremost 
excellent for their directness. 

^^ Wear close-fitting clothes ; have a blouse or jacket to button 
close around the waist and body ; have sleeves to fit arms 
C/iosely as far up as the elbow ; never wear a coat around 
machinery ; never approach a pair of gears or pulley from the 
driving side ; never attempt to save time by potting, or trying 
t\) pot on any fast-moving belts without slacking up or stopping 
entirel}^ to do it. Never allow an inexperienced person to go 
through the mills without an attendant ; never allow a woman 



294 



Maxims and Instructions. 



FACTORY RULES FOR PREVENTION OF ACCIDENT, 
to go through a mill, no matter how many attendants, while in 
motion ; noTcr attempt to go through the mill in the dark, 
you may forget the exact location of some dangerous object 
and seek to avoid it, but it is still there, noiselessly waiting a 
chance to wreck you ; never allow any dangerous place fco go 
unguarded ; keep your eye open while oiling ; never relax youi 
vigilance for an instant, it may cost you your life. If you feel 
a gentle tug on your clothes, grab, and grab quick, anjrthing 
you can cling to, and don't let go till after the clothes do.'^ 



WATEK CIRCULATION. 

Water consists of an innumerable quantity of extremely 
minute particles called molecules. These particles have the 
property of being able to glide over, under, and to and from 
each other almost without resistance or friction. When water 
is heated in a boiler the action 



that takes place is this: As the 
heat is applied, the particles 
nearest the heated surfaces be- 
come expanded or swollen, and 
are so rendered lighter (bulk 
for bulk) than the colder parti- 
cles, they are therefore com- 
pelled to rise to the highest 
point in the boiler. 

This upward action is vividly 
shown by the illustration on 
page 242, and by Fig. 158, 
where the warmer particles are 
ascending and the cooler ones 
are descending by a process 
which is endless so long as heat 
is applied to the lower part of 
the containing vessel. 

The cause of circulation is the 
result of an immutable law of 
nature (the law of gravitation), 
and is so simple that with 



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im 



Fig. 158. 



Maxims and Instructions. 2g^ 

WATER CIRCULATION, 
moderate care in its manipulation failures in arranging steam 
heating apparatus arc noxt to impossible. A very slight ex- 
perience suffices to show that a pipe taken froji the top of a 
boiler and given a direct or gradual rise to the point farthest 
from the boiler, and then returned and connected into it at the 
bottom, will upon the application of heat, cause the water to 
circulate. It is not necessary that the water should boil or 
even approach boiling point, to cause circulation, as in a 
properly constructed apparatus the circulation commences soon 
after the heat is applied end immediately the temperature is 
raised in the boiler. It is a very common error to su;ipose that 
the circulation commences in the flow or up pipe, whereas it is 
just the reverse. The circulation is caused by the water m the 
return pipe andean be described as a stream of heated particles 
flowing up one pipe from the boiler and a stream of cooler par- 
ticles flowing down another pipe into the boiler; or it might 
be described as a means of automatically transporting heated 
water from the lower to the upper parts of a building, and pro- 
viding a down flow of cold water to the boiler to be heated in 
turn. 

Those having in charge the erection of hot-water systems for 
heating buildings, will do well to remember that the circulation 
they expect depends entirely upon the expansion of particles 
when heated, and that they must avoid as much as possible 
friction, exposure of flow pipes to very low temperature, and 
frequent or numerous short bends. 

When properly arranged the action of ^' the steam loop " is 
a very good illustration of the circulation of hot water and 
Bteam; the flow is continuous, rapid and positive. 

Note. — When the steam loop is properly connected, the stop 
valve at the boiler should always be left open and full pressure 
maintained in the steam pipe over night or over Sunday. The 
loop will keep up a powerful circulation, returning all water to 
the boiler as fast as condensed. On starting up in the morn- 
ing, it is only necessary to open the waste cocks and blow out 
what little water may have condensed in the cylinders them- 
selves. The throttle may then be opened and the engine started 
with the steam as dry as if it had been running continuouslyo 



2g6 Maxims and Instructions, 



CHIMNEYS AND DRAUGHT. 

Draught, in cliimneys, is caused by the difference between 
the weight of the air outside and that inside the chimney. 
This difference in weight is produced by diff'erence in heat. 

Now, heated air has a strong tendency to rise above cool air 
and a very slight difference will cause an upward flow of the 
heated particles, and the hotter the air, the brisker the flow. 

As these particles ascend it leaves a space which the cooler air 
eagerly hastens to fill; in the boiler furnace, the hot air push- 
ing its way up the chimney, is replaced through the grate bars 
with cool, fresh air. 

It is the mingling of this fresh air with the combustibles 
that produces heat, and the power of the draught is absolutely 
necessary to the reliable operation of the furnace. 

An excess of draught can be corrected by the use of a damper 
or even by the closing of the ash pit doors, but no more 
unhappy position for an engineer can be imagined than a 
deficiency of draught. 

This lack is produced by, 1st, too little area in the chimney 
flue; 2d, by too low a chimney; 3d, by obstructions to the flow 
of the gases; 4th, by the overtopping of the chimney by adja- 
cent buildings, hills or tree tops. There are other causes of 
failure which practice develops; hence, the draught of a new 
chimney is very often an uncertain thing until every-day trial 
demonstrates its action. 

The draught of steam boilers and other furnaces should be 
regulated below the grate and not in the chimney. The ash 
pit door should be capable of being closed air tight, and the 
damper in the chimney should be kept wide open at all times 
unless it is absolutely necessary to have the area of the chimney 
reduced in order to prevent the gases from escaping too fast 
to make steam. 

When two flues enter a larger one at right angles to it, oppo- 
site each other, as is frequently the case where there is a large 
number of boilers in a battery, and the chimney is placed near 
the center of the battery, (he main flue should always have a 
division plate in its center oetween the two entering flues to 
give direction to the incoming currents of gases, and prevent 



Maxims and Instructions, Sgj 



CHIMNEYS AND DRAUGHTo 
their ''butting/* as it may be termed. The same thing 
should always be doue where two horizontal flues enter a chim- 
ney at the same height at opposite sides. 

In stationary boilers the chimney area should be one-fifth 
greater than the combined area of all the tubes or flueSo 

For marine boilers the rule is to allow fourteen square inches 
of chimney area for each nominal horse power. 

The draft of a chimney is usually measured in inches oJ 
water. The arrangement most commonly made use of for this 
purpose consists of a U-shaped glass tube connected by rubber 
tir.bmg, iron pipe, or other arrangement, with some part of the 
chimney in such a way that the draft will produce a difference 
o\ level of water in the two legs of the bent glass tube. 

The " Locomotive" suggests that the unit for chimney con- 
st ruction should be a flue 81 feet high above the level of the 
grates, having an area equal to the collective area of the tubes 
oi all the boilers leading to it, the boilers being of the ordinary 
horizontal return tubular type, having about 1 square foot of 
heating surface to 45 square feet of heating surface. 

Note the above conditions, and, in case of changing the above 
p''oportions, it should be observed that the draught power of 
cliimneys is proportional to the square root of the height, so we 
YD ay reduce its area below the collective area of the boiler tubes 
in the same proportion that the square root of its height exceeds 
the square root ofS\, 

For example, suppose we have to design a chimney for ten 
boilers, 66 in. in diameter, each having 72 tubes, 3| in. in 
diameter, what would be its proportion. 

The collective area of the 720 3|- in. tubes would be 6,017 
square inches, and if the chimney is to be but 81 feet high, it 
should have this area, which would require a flue 6 ft. 5J iuo 
square. 

But, suppose, for some reason, it is decided to have a chimney 
150 feet in height, instead of 81 feet. The square root of 150 
is 12|; the square root of 81 is 9; and we reduce the areaof the 
chimney by the following proportion: 12.25: 9 — 6,017: 4,420 
square inches, which would be the proper area, and would call 
for a chimney 5 ft. 6 in„ square, and similarly if any other 
height were decided upon. 



2g8 



Maxims and Instructions, 





PLUMBING. 

The art of working in lead is older than the pyramids. 
For thousands of years hydraulics and plumbing as an occu- 
pation engaged the principal attention of engineers. King 

David used lead 

pipe, so did 

Archimedes; the 

terraces and gar- 
dens of Babylon 

were supplied 

with water 

through leaden 

pi p c s. Steam 
fitting, with galvanized pipe and an elaborate system of connec- 
tions and devices is a new department of mechanism — almost 
of the present generation — and at first 
sight would seem aLle soon to supercede 
lead piping of all kinds, but it is safe to 
say that nothing can ever take the place 
of lead, for this admirable metal can be 
made to answer where no other material 
can be worked; for instance, lead pipe can 
be made to conform to any angle or ob- 
struction where no other system of piping 
will. Hence, plumbing as a useful and 
ornamental art will never go out of date, 
and engi)ieors of every branch will do well 
to study its principles and methods so as 
to meet the ever-recurring and perplexing 
questions connected with sewerage, water 
supply, etc. 

Every engineer should at least know how 
1, to join lead pipe — to make a *^wipe 
joint, ^' — as in a hundred emergencies this 
knowledge will be of worth. 2, how to make a temporary 
stopping of leaks; 3, how to bend pipe with sand or springs; 4, 
how to ''back air pipes'' from sinks; 5, how to use force 
pumps; 6, how to arrange the circulating pipes in hot-water 
boilers; 7, how to make solder; 8, how to repair valves, etc., etc. 




Maxims and Instructions, 



2gg 



PIPING AND DRAINAGE. 

The three illustrations on jiage 298 are designed to represent 
traps set in lead pipe and show vividly the difference between 
this material and iron piping. 

Lead is one of the elementary substances of which the world 
is formed; it ranks with gold, silver, tin, etc., in being an 
unmixed metal. It melts at about 617° Fahrenheit, and is, 
bulk for bulk, lliV heavier than water (gold being ITtV heavier 
and wrought iron 7fo heavier). The tenacity of lead is 
extremely low, a wire xVth of an inch breaks with a weight of 



Fig. 159, 




^v^'--^?' «.\*.*x^ 



28 lbs. ; in comparison, its tenacity is only one-twentieth that 
of iron; it is so soft that it may be scratched with the thumb 
nail. If a very strong heat is applied lead boils and evaporates; 
it transmits heat very slowly; of seven common metals it is the 
worst conductor, therefore it is good for hot water pipes. 
Mixed with a sufficient quantity of quicksilver it remains liquid. 
An advantage to be found in the use of lead is its durability 
and comparative freedom from repairs. In London, soil and 
drain water pipes which have been fixc^d 3C0 to 500 years are as 



30O 



Maxims and Instructions, 



PIPING AND DRAINAGE. 

good now iS the day they were first made — while iron pipe 
cannot be expected to last over 10 or 20 years or 30 at the 
utmost. 

Fig. ;I59 represents the general system of house piping and 
drainage applicable also to shops, public buildings, etc. A 
exhibits the drain or sewer. A-C represents the sewer connec- 
tion, so called with a running trap, B. ^' C " at the end of the 
lower pipe exhibits a soil pipe elbow, with hand hule for clean- 
ing out closed by a screw plug. This drain should have a 
regular fall or inclination and this elbow provides for that. 
C-D shows the rain water leader (conductor.) 

E and F is a soil pipe 3, 4, 5, or 6 inches in diameter. Nota, 
pipes draining water closets are called ^^soil pipes ^'; those 
draining other fixtures '^ waste pipes.'' N and represent 
water closet flanges; F and H are roof connections; L exhibits 
double and single Y branches to receive waste-pipes from 
baths, bowls, or sinks. The plumber makes this connection, 
always trapping the lead waste-pipe and then soldering it to a 
trass nipple. 

LEAD PIPE JOINTS. 




Fig. 160. 

It has been remarked that after learning how to make '^a 
wipe joint," everything is easy relating to the plumber's trade; 
hence, the importance of the following directions. 

To learn the art, previous practice with short pieces of pipe 
is recommended. This trial piece can be clamped as shown in 
Fig. 160 and used over and over until practice has been had. 

There are many names for the process of lead joint-making, 
such as the flow-joint, the ribbon joint, the blown joint, the 
astragal joint, etc., to express the different positions and uses 



Maxims and Instructions, joi 

LEAD PIPE JOINTS, 
for which they are needed, but in the main they are made as 
follows : 

1. The lead pipe to be joined is sawn square off with the 
proper toothed saw — attention being paid to making the end 
absolutely true, across the pipe. 

2. One end of the pipe to be joined is first opened by driving 
in a wooden wedge, shaped like a plumb-bob, called the '^Hurn 
pin," Care should be exercised at this time not to split the 
end, i inch opening is usually enough, which leaves the pipe as 
shown at D, Fig. IGl. Now, clean the internal part of the 
joint all around the part required for soldering — this cleaning 
can be done with the plumber^s shave hook or with a pocket 
knife. To complete this preparation " touch " the part with 
grease from a tallow candle. 

3. Kext is the preparation of the male part of the joint. 
This must be rasp-filed down to fit the enlarged opening. It 
is important to have a good fit throughout; hence, inside the 
enlarged opening must be also rasp-filed and the two surfaces 
to come nicely together before the solder is applied. 

4. At this stage a paste called ^'plumber^s soil'' must be 
applied outside 3 inches from the end of each piece of pipe; 
this is shown by the line E E in Eig. 161, also at A B, Eig. 160; 
the line of the soiling should be very even and true in order to 
assure a workmanlike job and the soiling put on as before 
stated, 3 ^0 5 inches heyond the solder line on each side. 

As the melting point of lead is 612 degrees or thereabouts, it 
is necessary to have solder melt at a lower temperature, and that 
made under the rule given will melt at 410 to 475 degrees. 

No tool to a plumber is more important than the cloth used 
in joint making. To make it, take a piece of new mole skin or 
fustian, of moderate thickness, 12 inches long by 9 inches 
wide, fold it up one side 4 inches; then 4 inches again, and 
again 4 inches; then fold it in the middle, which will make 
your cloth 4x4^ inches, and of 6 thickness. After this is done, 
sew up the ragged ends to keep it from opening. Then pour 
a little hot tallow on one side and the cloth is ready for use. 
In Eig. 160-a is shown, H, a hand holding the cloth in the 
process of ''wiping the joint/' whinh will now be described. 



^02 Maxims and Instructions, 

LEA.D PIPE JOINTS. 

First place a small piece of paper under the joint to catch the 
surplus solder D and begin soldering as follows: Take the felt F 
in the right hand and with it hold the ladle three parts full of 
solder. To see that it is not too hot hold your hand within 2 
inches or so of the solder; if it quickly burns your hand it ia 
too hot; if you can only just hold your hand this distance, use 
it; but if you cannot feel the heat, the solder is too cold. 

When you begin to pour your solder upon the joint do ii 
very lightly and not too much at a time in one place, but keep 
the ladle moving backward and forward, pouring from E to J, 
first on one side of the joint to the other and from end to end. 

Pour also an inch or two up the soiling, as shown at E to 
make the pipe of proper temperature, i. e., to the same heat as 
the solder. The further, in reason, the heat is run or taken 
along the pipe, the better the chance of making the joint. 



Fig. 160-a. 

Keep pouring and with the left hand hold the cloth C to 
catch the solder and also cause the same to tin the lower side of 
the pipe and to keep the solder from dropping down. This 
cloth, so important in joint making is elsewhere described. 
By the process of steady pouring the solder now becomes nice 
and soft and begins to feel shaped, firm and bulky. 

When in this shape and in a semi-fluid condition quickly put 
the ladle down, and instantly with the left hand shape one side 
of the joint always beginning at the outsides, or at that part 



Maxims and Instructions, 



303 



LEAD PIPE JOINTS, 
next the soiling; then take the cloth in the right hand and do 
the other side, finisliing on the top; a light run of the cloth all 
round the joint will, if the solder has not set and you have been 
quick with your work, give the appearance of a turned joint. 
After a little practice the joint may be made without changing 
the cloth from one hand to the other. 

The secret of joint making is getting the lead to the heat of 
the solder and in roughly shaping the solder, while in the semi- 
■fluid state. 

Good mechanical fitting is the result of two things — good 
judgment and a delicate sense of touch. 



REPAiRii^G Pipes with Putty Joints. 

First get the pipe thoroughly dried, and 
with some quick drying gold size paint the 
part to be repaired; then get some white 
lead and stiffen it with some powdered red 
lead, so as to make it a hardish putty, place 
a thin layer of this, say f th inch to ^ inch 
in thickness, over the bursted part of the 
pipe, and with some good strong calico, 
painted with the gold size, neatly wrap the 
red lead to the pipe, using 3 or 4 thick- 
nesses of the painted calico; then with 
some twine begin at one end, laying the 
twine in several layers in rotation until it 
has, like the calico, several thicknesses. 

If properly done this will be strong 
enough to withstand any ordinary press- 
ure on the pipes and if more is required 
the putty can be made from dry red lead 
and gold size. In making all white and 
red lead joints, first, see that the parts are 
thoroughly dry; second, see that the parts 
are not dirty with rust, &c.; next, well 
Fig. 161. paint the parts with good, stiff paint be^ 

tore putting the putty on to form the joint. 




J04 Maxims and Instructions, 



BENDING LEAD PIPE. 

If any ordinary piece of light lead pipe \\ inches in diame- 
ter is taken and pulled or bent sharply around it will crimple 
or crinkle at the throat; the larger and thinner the pipe the 
more it will become distorted. 

There are many methods of making these bends in lead pipe, 
some with dummies, others with bolts, balls, etc., others cut 
the bends at the back, at the throat or the two sides of the 
bend. 

For small j)ipes, such as i to 1 inch and extra heavy, they 
may be pulled round without trouble or danger, but for a little 
larger size sakd bei^^ding is largely practiced, as follows : 

Take the length of pipe, say 5 feet, fill and well ram it with 
sand 2 feet up, then have ready a metal pot of very hot sand to 
fill the pipe 1 foot up, next fill the pipe up with more cold 
sand, ramming it as firmly as possible, stop the end and pull 
round the pipe, at the same time hammering quickly working 
the lead from the throat towards the back, which can be done 
if properly worked. N. B. — Care must be used not to reduce 
or enlarge the size of the bore at the bend. 

Bekding with Watee. — It is a well-known fact that for 
such work, water is incompressible, but may be turned of 
twisted about for any shape provided it is enclosed in a soKd 
case. To make the bend — the end of the pipe is stopped and 
a stop cock soldered into the other end; take the pipe at the 
end and pull it around, being careful that the water does not 
cool and shrink, and hammering quickly to take out the crinkle. 

Bexding with Balls. — This method is practiced with small 
pipe and also to take '^ dints '' out in case of sand and wat»^r 
bending when a ball is sent through. Method: suppose the 
pipe to be 2 inches, then a ball is required iV in. less than the 
pipe, so that it will run through the pipe freely. Now pull 
the pipe round until it just begins to flatten, put the ball inio 
the pipe and with some short pieces of wood, say 2 in. long by 
1^ in. in diam., force the ball through the dented part of the 
pipe. The ball will run through all the easier if '^'touched" 
over with a candle end. Care must be used in forcing the ball 
^ack and forth not to drive it through the bend. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



305 



Table. — ^Weight of Sheet Lead. 
















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«• 


» 


« 


^ 


,. 




a 














»- 


1 


- 


^ 


»» 


3 


« 


>• 




<1 


1 














<{ 


<1 


<1 


m 


Q 


ft 


w 



Sheet lead is not the same 
weight, bulk for bulk, ow- 
ing to difference in organic 
formation, but a cubic foot 
may be said to weigh 709 lbs. 
A square foot 1" thick, 59 '' 



(( C( 


.. ^, 


<< 


^ '^ 


i< ii 




(C 


6 " 


a a 




(C 


5 '' 


a a 




a 


4 '' 


a (( 


'' i/ 


a 


3 '' 


Sheet 


lead is 


sometimes 


made as 
paper. 


thin 


as 


writing 



Plumber's Solder. 

Rule for making. — Take 
loo lbs. good old lead or lead 
cuttings, run it down thor- 
oughly, stir it up and take off 
all dirt or dross: then take 50 
lbs. pure tin, let this run 
down, and when nearly all is 
melted and is a little cooler 
throw in 1^ lb. of black rosin, 
and well stir the lot up. Last 
bring up the heat to 600 
degrees which may be known 
by the burning of a bit of 
newspaper put in the pot. 
The solder is now hot enough 
and should be well stirred 
and then run into moulds. 



jo6 



Maxims and Instructions. 



PLUMBEK^S TOOLS 






Fig. 163. 




Fig. 162. 
The processes of lead working are executed 
by manual dexterity acquired by long prac- 
tice, and to do the work properly require s 

many special tools. 
Some of these are 
used in common with 
other departments of 
mechanics but are 
none the less neces- 
sary in lead working. 

We present cuts of 
the principle tools 
used some of which 
are self explaining 
and some are named 
with further de- 
secription of particular use. 

3 Fig. 162 represents one form 
of the plumber's tap borer or 
Fig. 165. reamer, used for making and en- 

larging holes in pipe. 
Fig. 163 represents plumber's snips. 
Fig. 164 is the well-known and always useful 
ladle. 

Fig. 165 is the round nose pcne hammer, used 
in plumber's work to open the inside pipe before 
jointing. 

Fig. 166 is the plumb bob. The same cut 
will also convey an idea of the wooden instru- 
ment used to force open the pipe before joint- 
Fig. 166. ing, i. e., "the turn pin.'' 



Fig. 164. 




Maxims and Instrttctions. 



307 



PLUMBER'S TOOLS. 



! g"- ' Mr 



I 



Fig. 167. 



Fig. 168. 



Fig. 169. 



Fig. 170. 



■■ 



Fig . 171. 



Fig. 167 represents 
'' the round nose 
chisel.^' 

Fig. 168 is the 
^''wood chisel"" nsed 
in cutting away wood, 
work. 

Fig. 169 is the half 
round nose chisel. 



Fig. l^Oisthewell- 
Kinown ^*^cape chisel.-'' 

Fig. 171 is the 
equally well-known 
'' cold chisel." 

Fig. 172 is the 
diamond nose chis- 



Fig. 172. 



3 



173. 




Fig. 174. 



Fig. 173 shows a rivet set 
for small work connected with 
^^^ plumbing and sheet metal 
work. 

Fig. 174 exhibits the plumber's torch 
this is also used by engineers to explore 
interiors of boilers, chimney flues, and 
other dark places about the steam plant. 

Fig. 175 is a compass saw. 
Fig. 176 is a double edged plumber's 
saw. 

Fig. 177 is a spirit level. 

Fig. 178 is a looking-glass used in 
making underhand joints and in many- 
useful ways about a steam plant. 



3o8 



Maxims and Instructions. 



PLUMBER'S TOOLS. 




Fi2r. 178. 



Fig. 179. 




Fig. 180. 



Fig. 183. 

Fig. 181 is a soldering tool known 
^ among plumbers as '^'a copper point- 
ed bolt." 

rig. 182 is 

a copper-poin- 
ted bolt, flat. 
Fig. 183 
represents a 
hanger, for 
s u s p e n d i ng 
iron and lead 



Fig. 181. 



Fig. 183. 



pipe; its ex- 
cellence con- 
sists in enab- 
ling pipes to 
be raised or lowered 
arter being hung 
without taking the 
hanger apart. 



Maxims and Instructions. 



309 



USEFUL TABLES OF WEIGHTS OF IRON 
AND COMPARISONS OF GAUGES. 



Weight of a Superficial Foot of Plate and Sheet Iron 



Plate Iron. 


Sheet Iron. 




Weight 
per -^d 


United States Standard Guage. 


Thick- 


opted by Congress, to take effect July 1st, 1893. 


116SS. 


square foot. 












N 


UMBER 
OF 


lOOO^s 

Of 


Weight 

per 

square foot. 

OUNCES 


Nearest 






fraction of 


INCHES. 


POUNDS. C 


JUAGE. 


an inch. 


an inch. 


V16 iD. 


2^ N 


0. 1 


.281 


180 oz. 


9/32 in. 


% - 


5 


' 2 


.205 


170 " 


"/64 • 




3/16 «• 


71^ 


' 3 


.250 


160 " 


Va ' 




^ - 


10 


' 4 


.234 


150 " 


15/64 ' 




5/16 " 


12K 


' 5 


.218 


140 " 


1/32 ' 




% •• 


15 


' 6 


.203 


130 " 


13/64 . 




'/16 •• 


17^ 


' 7 


.187 


120 " 


3/16- . 




% ' 


20 


• 8 


.171 


110 ' 


11/64 ' 




»/l6 " 


22^ 


' 9 


.156 


100 " 


5/32 . 




^e" 


25 


' 10 


.140 


90 " 


% ' 




27^ 


• 11 


.125 


80 " 


Vs • 






30 


' 12 


.109 


70 " 


^/64 ' 




321^ 


' 13 


.093 


60 " 


2/32 ♦ 




;g •' 


35 


' 14 


.078 


50 " 


5/64 ♦ 




15/16 " 


3 73^^ 


' 15 


.070 


45 • 


^/l28 ' 




1 ♦' 


40 


' IG 


.062 


40 " 


I/16 ' 








' 17 


.056 


36 " 


^/l60 ' 








' 18 


.050 


32 ♦ 


1/20 ' 








' 19 


.043 


28 »' 


Vm ' 








' 20 


037 


24 • 


3/80 ' 








' 21 


034 


22 " 


11/320 ' 








' 22 


.031 


20 ' 


1/32 • 








' 23 


.028 


18 " 


^/320 ' 








' 24 


.025 


16 ' 


1/40 ' 








' 25 


.021 


14 " 


^/320 ' 








' 26 


.018 


12 ' 


3/16O « 








• 27 


017 


11 " 


11/640 ' 








' 28 


.015 


10 '• 


1/64 ' 








' 29 


014 


9 ': 


«/6^0 • 








' 30 


.012 


8 '• 


1/80 • 





310 



Maxims and Instructions. 



USEFUL TABLES. 



Weight of One Foot of Bound Iron 


• 


Size, 


Weight pr. Foot.' 


Size. 


Weight pr. Foot. 


Size. 


Weight pr. Foot. 




LBS. 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 


y^m. 


.041 


ItV in. 


5.41 


3K in. 


32.07 


yV - 


.092 


IK •• 


5.89 


Ws .. 


34.40 


k .. 


.164 


t :: 


6.39 


3^ ... 


36.82 


■i^ .. 


.256 


6.91 


SVs .. 


39.31 


% .. 


.368 


Hi .. 


7.45 


4 .. 


41.89 


tV .. 


.501 


\% .. 


8.02 


4^ .. 


44.55 




.654 




8.60 


4^ .. 


47.29 


y9g. . . 


.828 


\y^ , . 


9.20 


4% .. 


50 11 


%'•'• 


1.02 


HI •• 


9.83 


4K .. 


53 01 


1.24 


% ., 


10.47 


4,5^ .. 


66.00 


1.47 


^Vs .. 


11.82 


i% .. 


59.07 


i:. 


1.73 


2H .. 


13.25 


4;g .. 


62.22 


2. 00 


2% .. 


14.77 


5 ., 


65.45 


\% .. 


2.30 


2V2 .. 


16.36 


^Vs .. 


68.76 


1 .. 


2.62 


2f| .. 


18.04 


5J^ .. 


72.16 


liV .. 


2.95 


2M .' 


19.80 


5M .. 


75.64 


Wz .. 


3.31 


2/8 •• 


21.64 


5K .. 


79.19 


rh .. 


3.69 


3 .. 


23.56 


5.^^ .. 


82.83 


IK .. 


4.09 


dVs .. 


25.57 


5% .. 


86.56 




4.51 


3^ .. 


27.65 


5^ .. 


90.36 


1% •• 


4.95 


3^ .. 


29.82 


6 .. 


94.25 



Weight of One Foot of Square Iron 




Size. 


Weight pr. Foot 


Size. 


Weight pr. Foot. 


Size. 


Weight pr. Foot 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 




Lbs. 


Vs in. 


.052 


h\ in. 


6.89 


3K in. 


40.83 


i .. 


.117 


ik .. 


7.50 


3^ .. 


43.80 


M .. 


.208 


h\ .. 


8.14 


3^ .. 


46.88 




.326 


IM .. 


8.80 


m " 


50.05 


.469 


hI .. 


9.49 


4 .. 


63.33 


tV • • 


.638 


i5 .. 


10 21 


41^ .. 


66.72 


}4 •• 


.833 


iH«. 


10.95 


4^ .. 


60.21 


•^ir . .- 


1.06 


i;^ .. 


11.72 


^Vs .. 


63.80 


% • • 


1.30 


HI .. 


12.51 


4K .• 


67.50 


H • • 


1.58 


2 .. 


13.33 


^rs .. 


71.30 


X .. 


1.87 


21^ .. 


15.05 


43/^ .. 


75.21 


^f . 


2.20 


2^ .. 


16.88 


4% .. 


79.22 


rs •• 


2.55 


2% .. 


18.80 


' 5 .. 


83.33 


(1 . 


2.93 


2i| .. 


20.83 


51^ .. 


87.55 


1 .. 


3.33 


25^ .. 


22.97 


5^1 .. 


91.88 


v^ .. 


3.76 


2^ .. 


25.21 


5M •• 


96.30 


ni .. 


4.22 


2^ .. 


27.55 


5K .. 


100.80 


h\ . . 


4.70 


3 ■ .. 


30.00 


5.4 .. 


105.50 


1^1 .. 


5.21 


31^ .. 


32.55 


5^1 .. 


110.20 


h\ •• 


5.74 


314.. 


35.21 


d .. 


115.10 


1% .. 


6.30 


3% .. 


37.97 


6 .. 


120.00 



Maxims and Instructions, 



311 



USEFUL TABLES. 



Weight per Running- Foot of Cast Steel. 



Size. 


Lbs. 


Size. 


Lbs. 


1 Size. 


Lbs 


Size. 


Lbs. 


y^ in. S(i. 


.213^ 


M in, Rd. 


.167 


1 x^ 


.852 


M in. Oct. 


.745 


K • • • • 


.855 


K .. .• 


.669 


13^>^M 


1.43 


5/ 


1.16 


^ . . . . 


1.91 


% •• .. 


1.50 


\\^'^V. 


2 13 


M*.. .. 


1 67 


1 .. .. 


3.40 


I .. .. 


2.67 


l^x^ 


3.19 


%, .. .. 


2.28 


\M .. .. 


5.32 


V4. .. .. 


4 18 


1^4x^4 


4 46 


1 .. .. 


2.98 


\% .. .. 


7.67 


Wi .. .. 


6.02 


2 xi^ 


3 40 


Wz •• .- 


3.77 


a .. .. 


13.63 


3 .. 


10.71 


[.. x% 


4 25 


1^.. . 


4 65 



Comparison of Principal Ouages in use 





United States 
Standard. 


Stubbs' Birmingham. 


Brown & Sharp. 


Niira- 
ber. 


lOOO's 

of 

an inch. 


Pounds 

per square 

foot. 

IRON. 


lOOO^s 

of 

an inch. 


Pounds 

per square 

foot. 

iron. 


lOOO's 

of 

an inch. 


Pounds 

per square 

foot. 

iron. 


No. 1 


.281 


11.25 


.300 


12 04 


.289 


11.61 


- 2 


.265 


10.62 


.284 


11.40 


.257 


10.34 


'* 3 


.250 


10. 


.2.59 


10.39 


.229 


9.21 


- 4 


.234 


9.37 


.2.38 


9.55 


.204 


8.20 


•• 6 


.218 


8.75 


.220 


8.83 


.181 


7.30 


" 6 


.203 


8.12 


.203 


8.15 


.162 


6.50 


" 7 


.187 


7.50 


.180 


7 22 


.144 


5.79 


•' 8 


.171 


6.87 


165 


6 62 


.128 


5.16 


" 9 


.156 


6.25 


.148 


5.94 


.114 


4 59 


**10 


.140 


5.62 


.134 


5. 38 


.102 


4.09 


*'ll 


.125 


5.00 


.120 


4.82 


.091 


3.64 


"12 


.109 


4.37 


.109 


4.37 


.080 


3 24 


" 13 


.093 


3 75 


.095 


3.81 


.072 


2.89 


- 14 


.078 


3.12 


.083 


3 33 


.064 


2.57 


"15 


.070 


2.81 


.072 


2.89 


.057 


2.29 


**16 


.062 


2.50 


.065 


2.61 


.050 


2 04 


"17 


.0.56 


2.25 


.058 


2.83 


.045 


1.82 


"18 


.050 


2.00 


.049 


1.97 


.040 


1.62 


" 19 


.043 


1.75 


.042 


1 69 


.036 


1 44 


r 20 


.037 


1.50 


.035 


1 40 


.032 


1.28 


f'21 


.034 


1.37 


.032 


1.28 


.028 


1.14 


1" 22 


.031 


1.25 


.028 


1.12 


.025 


1.02 


"23 


.028 


1.12 


.025 


1.00 


.022 


.90 


"24 


.025 


1.00 


.022 


.88 


.020 


.80 


"25 


.021 


.87 


.020 


.80 


.018 


.72 


"26 


.018 


.75 


.018 


.72 


.016 


.64 


"27 


.017 


.68 


.016 


.64 


.014 


.57 


"28 


.015 


62 


.014 


.56 


.012 


.50 


"29 


.014 


.56 


.013 


..52 


.011 


.45 


" 30 


.012 


.50 


.012 


.48 


.010 


.40 



312 



Maxims and Instructions. 



NOISELESS WATER HEATER. 

This device is very effective for heating water in open or 
closed tanks by direct steam pressure without noise. The 
heater consists of an outward and upward discharging steam 
nozzle, covered by a shield "which has numerous openings for 
the admission of water so that the discharge jet takes the form 
of an inverted cone, discharging upwards. 



■STEAM 




Fig. 184. 



A small pipe admits air to the steam jet, and by mixing 
therewith prevents a collapse of the steam bubbles, and the 
noise, which is such a great objection to heating by direct 
steam in the old way. A valve or cock on the small air pipe 
regulates the opening as may appear most desirable. 

Exhaust steam can by the same method be disposed of under 
water without noise. 



Maxims and Instructions, jij 




ACCIDENTS Al^D EMERGENCIES. 

Few subjects can more usefully employ 
the attention and study of engineers than 
the proper treatment and first remedies 
made necessary by the peculiar and dis- 
tressing accidents to which persons are 
liable who are employed in or around a 
steam plant. 

These and many other things of a like 
nature are likely to call for a cool head, a 
steady hand and some practical knowledge 
Fig. 184 of what is to be done. 

In the first moments of sudden disaster, of any kind, the 
thoroughly trained engineer is nearly always found, in the con- 
fusion incident to such a time, to be the one most competent 
to advise and direct the efforts made to avert the danger to life 
limb or property, and to remedy the worst after effects. 

To fulfil this responsibility is worth much previous prepara- 
tion, so that the best things under the circumstances may be 
done quickly and efficiently. To this end the following advice 
is given relating to the most common accidents which are 
likely to happen, in spite of the utmost exercise of care and 
prudence. 

13urns and Scalds, — Burns are produced by heated 
solids or by flames of some combustible substance; scalds are 
produced by steam or a heated liquid. The severity of the 
accident depends mainly, 1, on the intensity of the heat of the 
burning body, together with, 2, the extent of surface, and, 3, 
the vitality of the parts involved in the injury, thus: a person 
may have a finger burned off with less danger to life than an 
extensive scald of his back. 

The immediate effect of scalds is generally less violent than 
that of burns; fluids not being capable of acquiring so high a 
temperature as some solids, but flowing about with great facil- 
ity their effects become most serious by extending to a large 
surface of the body. A burn which instantly destroys the part 



^t/f. Maxims and InstrMctions. 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES, 
which it touches may be free from dangerous complications, if 
the injured part is confined within a small compass; this is 
owing to the peculiar formation of the skin. 

The skin is made up of two layers; the outer one has neither 
blood vessels nor neryes, and is called the scarf-skin or cuticle; 
the lower layer is called the true skin, or cutis. The latter is 
richly supplied with nerves and blood vessels, and is so highly 
sensitive we could not endure life unless protected by the 
cuticle. The skin, while soft and thin, is yet strong enough 
to enable us to come in contact with objects without pain or 
inconvenience. 

The extent of the surface involved, the depth of the injury, 
the vitality and sensibility of the parts affected must all be duly 
weighed in estimating the severity and danger of an accident 
in any given case. 

In severe cases of burns or scalds the clothes should be 
removed wiih the. greatest care — they should be carefully cut, afc 
the seams, and not pulled off. 

In scalding by boiling water or steam, -cold water should be 
plentifully poured over the person and clothes, and the patient 
then be carried to a warm room, laid on the floor or a table but 
not put to bed, as there it becomes difficult to attend further 
to the injuries. 

The secret of the treatment is to avoid chafing, and to heep 
out the air. Save the skin unbroken, if possible, taking care 
not to break the blisters; after removal of the clothing an 
application, to the injured surface, of a mixture of soot and 
lardy is, according to practical experience, an excellent and 
efficient remedy. The two or three following methods of treat- 
ment also are recommended according to convenience in 
obtaining the remedies. 

Take ice well crushed or scraped, as dry as possible, then 
mix it with fresh lard until a broken paste is formed; the mass 
should be put in a thin cambric bag, laid upon the burn or 
scald and replaced as required. So long as the ice and lard 
are melting there is no pain from the burn, return of pain calls 
for a repetition of the remedy. 



Maxims and Instructions, j/5 

BURNS AND HEAT STROKES. 

The free use of soft soap upon a fresh burn will remove the 
fire from the flesh in a very little time, in J to -J an hour. If 
the burn be severe, after relief from the hum, use linseed oil 
and then sift upon it wheat flour. When this is dried repeat 
the oil and flour until a complete covering is formed. Let this 
dry until it falls off, and a new skin will be formed without a 
scar. 

In burns with lime, soap lye, or any cavstic alkali, wash 
abundantly with water (do not rub), aud then with weak vine- 
gar or water containing a little sulphuric acid; finally apply oil, 
paste or mixture as in ordinary bilrns. 

It would be well to always keep ready mixed an ointment for 
burns; in fact a previous readiness for an accident robs it of 
half its ill effects. 

Glue Buen Mixture. 

A method in use in the N". Y. City Hospital known as the 
'•■glue burn mixture "" is composed as follows: '^1^ Troy oz. 
white glue, 16 fluid oz. water, 1 fluid oz. glycerine, 2 fluid 
drachms carbolic acid. Soak the glue in the water until it is 
soft, then heat on a water bath until melted; add the glycerine 
and carbolic acid and continue heating until, in the intervals 
of stirring, a glossy strong skin begins to form over the surface. 
Pour the mass into small Jars, cover with parafine papers and 
tin foil before the lid of the jar is put on and afterwards pro- 
tect by paper pasted round the edge of the lid. In this manner 
the mixture may be preserved indefinitely. 

When wanted for use, heat in a water bath and apply with a 
flat brush over the burned part/' 

Insensibility from Smoke, — To recover a person 
from this dash cold water in the face, or cold and hot water 
alternately. Should this fail turn the patient on his face with 
the arms folded under his forehead; apply pressure along the 
back and ribs and turn the body gradually on the side; then 
again slowly on the face, repeating the pressure on the back: 
continue the alternate rolling movements about sixteen times a 
minute until breathing is restored. A warm bath will com- 
plete the cure. 



Ji6 Maxims and Instructions. 

-. _ . . — rfi 

TREATMENT OF CUTS AND WOUNDS. 

Heat-sir ohe or Siin-strohe, — The worst cases occur 
where the sun^s rays never penetrate and are caused by the 
extreme heat of close and confined rooms, overheated work- 
shops, boiler rooms, etc. The symptoms are, 1, a sudden loss 
of consciousness; 2, heavy breathing; 3, great heat of the skin; 
and 4, a marked absence of sweat. 

Treatment. — The main thing is to lower the temperature. 
To do this, strip off the clothing, apply chopped ice wrapped 
in flannel to the head; rub ice over the chest, and place pieces 
under the armpits and at the side. If no ice can be had use 
sheets or cloths wet with cold water, or the body can be stripped 
and sprinkled with cold water from a common watering pot. 

Cuts and Wounds, — In tliese the chief points to be 
attended to are: 1, arrest the bleeding; 2, remove from the 
wound all foreign bodies as soon as possible; 3, bring the 
wounded parts opposite to each other and keep them so; this 
is best done by means of strips of adhesive plaster, first applied 
to one side of the wound and then secured to the other; these 
strips should not be too broad, and space must be left between 
the strips to allow any matter to escape. Wounds too exten- 
sive to be held together by plaster must be stitched by a sur- 
geon, who should always be sent for in all severe cases. 

For washing a wound, to every pint of water add 2J tea- 
spoonfuls of carbolic acid and 2 tablespoonfals of glycerine — 
if these are not obtainable, add 4 tablespoonsful of borax to 
the pint of water — wash the wound, close it, and apply a com- 
press of a folded square of cotton or linen; wet it in the solnticn 
used for washing the wound and bandage down quickly and 
firmly. If the bleeding is profuse, a sponge dipped in very 
hot water and wrung out in a cloth should be applied as quickly 
as possible — if this is not to be had, use ice or cloth wrung out 
in ice water. 

Wounds heal in two ways. 1, rapidly by primary union, 
without suppuration, and leaving only a very fine scar. 2, 
slowly by suppuration and the formation of granulations and 
leaving a large red scar. 



Maxims and Instructions, jiy 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

bleeding, — This is of three kinds: 1, from the arteries 
which lead from the heart; 2, that which conies from the 
veins, which take the blood back to the heart; 3, that from the 
small veins which carry the blood to the surface of the body. 
In the first, the blood is bright scarlet and escapes as though it 
was being pumped. In the second, the blood is dark red and 
flows away in an uninterrupted stream. In the third, the 
blood oozes out. In some wounds all three kinds of bleeding 
occur at the same time. 

The simplest and best remedy to stop the bleeding is to 
apply direct pressure on the external wound by the fingers. 
Should the wound be long and gaping, a compress of some 
soft material large enough to fill the cavity may be pressed 
into it; but this should always be avoided, if possible, as it 
prevents the natural closing of the wound. 

Pressure with the hands will not suffice to restrain bleeding 
in severe cases for a great length of time and recourse must be 
had to a ligature; this can best be made with a pocket hand- 
kerchief or other article of apjoarel, long enough and strong 
enough to bind the limb. Fold the article neck-tie fashion, 
then place a smooth stone, or anything serving for a firm pad, 
on the artery, tie the handkerchief loosely, insert any available 
stick in the loop and proceed to twist it, as if wringing a towel, 
until just tight enough to stop the flow. Examine the wound 
from time to time, lessen the compression if it becomes very 
cold or purple, or tighten up the handkerchief if it commences 
bleeding. 

Some knowledge of anatomy is necessary to guide the opera- 
tor where to press. Bleeding from the head and upper neck 
requires pressure to be placed on the large artery which passes 
up beside the windpipe and just above the collar bone. The 
artery supplying the arm and hand runs down the inside of the 
upper arm, almost in line with the coat seam, and should be 
pressed as shown in Fig. 184. The artery feeding the leg and 
foot can be felt in the crease of the groin, just where the flesh 
of the thigh seems to meet the flesh of the abdomen and this is 
the best place to apply the ligature. In arterial bleeding the 



ji8 Maxims and Instructions. 

ACCIDENTS AND EMEEGENCIES. 
pressure must be put between the heart and the wound, while 
in venous bleeding it must be beyond the wound to stop the 
flow as it goes towards the heart. ' 

In any case of bleeding, the person may become weak and 
faint; unless the blood is flowing actively this is not a serious 
sign, and the quiet condition of the faint often assists nature 
in staying the bleeding, by allowing the blood to clot and so 
block up any wound in a blood vessel. Unless the faint is 
prolonged or the patient is losing mxuch blood, it is better not 
to hasten to relieve the faint condition; when in this state any- 
thing like excitement should be avoided, external warmth 
should be applied, the person covered with blankets, and bot- 
tles of hot water or hot bricks applied to the feet and arm-pits. 

Frost-hite, — No warm air, warm water, or fire should be 
allowed near the frozen parts uutil the natural temperature is 
nearly restored; rub the affected parts gently with, snow or 
snow water in a cold room; the circulation should be restored 
very slowly; and great care must be taken in the after treat- 
ment. 

l^vohen Sones, — The treatment consists of, 1, carefully 
removing or cutting away, if more convenient, any of the 
clothes which, are compressing or hurting the injured parts; 2, 
very gently replacing the bones in their natural position and 
shape, as nearly as possible, and putting the part in a position 
which gives most ease to the patient; 3, applying some tempo- 
rary splint or appliance, which will keep the broken bones 
from moving about and tearing the flesh; for this purpose, 
pieces of wood, pasteboard, straw, or firmly folded cloth may 
be used, taking care to pad the splints with some soft material 
and not to apply them too tightly, while the splints may be 
tied by loops of rope, string, or strips of cloth; 4, conveying 
the patient home or to a hospital. 

To get at a broken limb, or rib, the clothing must be 
removed, and it is essential that this be done without injury to 
the patient; the simplest plan is to rip up the seams of such 
garments as are in the way. Boots must be cut off. It is not 
imperatively necessary to do anything to a broken limb before 
the arrival of a doctor except to keep it perfectly at rest. 



Maxims and Insiructions, jig 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

Poultices, — These outward applications are useful to 
relieve sudden cramps and pains due to severe injuries^ sprains 
and colds. Tlie s.cret of applying a mustard is to apply it hot 
and keep it so by frequent changes — if ifc gets cold and clammy 
it will do more harm than good. Poultices to be of any service 
and hold its heat should be from one-half to one inch thick. 
To make it, take flaxseed, oatmeal, rye meal, bread, or ground 
slippery elm; stir the meal slowly into a bowl of boiling water, 
until a thin and smooth dough is formed. To apply it, take a 
piece of old linen of the right size, fold it in the middle; 
spread the dough evenly on one half of the cloth and cover it 
with the other. 

To make a '' mustard paste ^^ as it is called, mix one or two 
tablespoonfuls of mustard and the same of fine flour, with 
enough water to make the mixture an even paste; spread it 
neatly with a table knife on a piece of old linen, or even cotton 
cloth. Cover the face of the paste with a piece of thin muslin. 

Sow to Carry an Injured Person, — In case of 
an injury where walking is impossible, and lying down is not 
absolutely necessary, the injured person may be seated in a 
chair, and carried; or he may sit upon a board, the ends of 
v/hich are carried by two men, around whose necks he should 
place his arms so as to steady himself. 

Where an injured person can walk he will get much help by 
putting his arms over the shoulders and round the necks of 
two others. 

A seat may be made with four hands and the person may 
be thus carried and steadied by clasping his arms around the 
necks of his bearers. 

If only one person is available and the patient can stand up, 
let him place one arm round the neck of the bearer, bringing 
his hand on and in front of the opposite shoulder of the bearer. 
The bearer then places his arm behind the back of the patient 
and grasps his opposite hip, at the same time catching firmly 
hold of the hand of the patient resting on his shoulder, wdth 
his other hand; then by putting his hip behind the near hip of 
the patient, much support is given, and if necessary, the bearer 
can lift him oif the ground and as it were, carry him along. 



^20 Maxims and Instructions, 

ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCIES. 

To carry an injured person by a stretcher (which can be 
made of a door, shutter, or settee— with blankets or shawls or 
coats for pillows) three persons are necessary. In lifting the 
patient on the stretcher it should he laid with its foot to his 
head, so that both are in the same straight line; then one or 
two persons should stand on each side of him, and raise him 
from the ground, slip him on the stretcher; this to avoid the 
necessity of any one stepping over the stretcher, and the liabil- 
ity of stumbling. If a limb is crushed or broken, it may be 
laid upon a pillow with bandages tied around the whole (i. e,, 
pillow and limb) to keep it from slipping about. In carrying 
the stretcher the bearers should '' break step " with short paces; 
hurrying and jolting should be avoided and the stretcher 
should be carried so that the patient may be in plain sight of 
the bearers. 

PEESONAL. 

The fireman, so called, in steam service of any description, 
should and does on the average receive double the compensation 
of a man loho has only his lalor to bargain for. 

In addition, he exercises his slcillful vocation in sheltered 
places and is almost the last of the employees of a plant to he 
" laid off*^ and is certainly the first to he called on again after 
stoppage. 

Still further, the fireman has an almost equal opportunity, 
with the hest shop trained machinist, for advancement to the 
position of engineer in charge of the most extensive steam plants. 

Now I this increased pay over ordinary labor and other 
numerous advantages accruing from the position, demand a 
generous return, and in ending this work, the author suggests 
these ^'points " for observance to the aspiring student, whether 
engineer, fireman, or machinist, namely— that sobriety should 
he held one of the first elements of strict observance; an unrest- 
ing tidiness of person and premises; dignity of conduct, as 
being oived to the rising profession of steam, engineering; and 
lastly, an unswerving fidelity of trust, tvhich may include hon- 
^jit"/. iruthfuhifiss and couraae. 



INDEX. 



A.rclclents and Emergencies, 313. 

Factory rules to prevent, 293. 

Government rules to prevent, 290. 
Acid, definition, 137. 
Advantages of triple draught tubular 

boiler, 84. 
Air used in burning 1 lb. of coal, 14. 

ditto, bow supplied to the coal, 14. 

Description, 16. 

As a material substance, 16. 

Density at different depths, 16. 

Weight of a column of air, 17. 

As a fluid, 17. 

As an impenetrable body, 17. 

Five "points'* for the engineer, 17. 

Composition of, 17. 

Specific heat of, 215. 
Air valve, use of, 255. 
Alcoliol, specific heat of, 214. 
Alkalies, definition, 137. 
Alum, boiling point of, 37. 
Ammoniac (Sal), boiling point of, 37. 
Analysis of antracite coal, 13. 

Of bituminous coal, 13. 

Of wood, 13. 

Of heat, 13. 

Of scale deposited in marine boil- 
ers, 146. 

Of feed waters, 139-140. 
Angle and T iron, dimensions and 

shape, 104. 
Angle brick, 237. 
Angle-valve, description, 273. 
AntUracite coal, analysis of. 13. 

Ignited with difficulty, 16. 
Antimony, melting point, 42, 
Answers of applicants for a marine 

license, 127. 
Arcli-brici«,237. 

Area of safety valve, rule for find- 
ing, 192. 
Asli pit, the, 238. 

How kept during firing, 27. 
Assistant engineers, classification 

of, 310. 
Back pressure valves, description, 

273. 
Baffle plate, descriptioo, 169, ^80. 



Ball valve, description, 273. 
Bark, effect on steam boilers, 151. 
Barrel, rule for finding contents of 

203. 
Bars, grate, description, 173. 
Before lighting tlie fire, direc- 
tions, 25. 
Belts, how to safely run on pullies, 291. 
Bending lead pipe, 304. 
Bib cocii, description, 273. 
Bituminous coal, analysis of, 13. 

How burned, 16. 
Blast pipe for marine boiler, 63. 
Bleeding, treatment of, 317. 
Blow^ers for shavings, 20. 
Blow off, description, 81. 

Surface, description, 161. 
Boilers, description, 48. 

Upright steam, 50. 

Crude form, 52. 

Plain cylinder, description, 52. 

Cornish, description, 54. 

Lancashire, description, 55. 

Galloway, description of, 58. 

Marine, description of, 60, 

Marine, table of dimensions, 62. 

Locomotive portable, 80. 

Construction of, 89. 

Caulking, 94. 

Dangers from syphoning, 288. 

Dangers from gas, 288. 

Foaming in, 43. 

Fulcring, 94. 

Horse power of, 234. 

Proper steam connection for, 276. 
Boiler braces, "points" relating to. 

104. 
Boiler coverings, 273. 
Boiler, Compound, composition of, 
151-152. 

Compound, for locomotives, 149. 
Boiler castings, specifi'^ation of, 86. 
Boiler cleaners, mechanical descrip 

tion, 159, 16. 
Boiler explosions, causes of, 28S 
Boiler fittings and mountingr g'?. 

Fixtures, description, 164. 
Poller flue brusltes, use of, 21. 



322 



Index. 



Doiler fronts, description, 165. 
Boiler Injector, description, 206. 
Boiling, process of, 37. 
Boilin<^ points of various substan- 
ces, 37. 
Boiler maker's tools and machin- 
ery, 281. 
Boilers newly set, liow fired, 28. 

No two alike, 25. 
Boiler and pipe covering, mix- 
tures for, 275-276. 
Boiler plates, example of riveting, 
114. 

Marks on, 88. 
Boiler repairs, 123. 

Note, 125. 
Boiler scale, analysis of, 148. 
Boiler scum, how formed, 150. 
Boiler setting, 236. 
Boiler steel, description of quality, 90. 
Boiler tubes, dimensions of lap weld- 
ed tubes, 110. 

Table of holding power. 111, 

Experiments in strength of, 111. 

Notes, 110, 112. 

Illustration of size, 245. 
Boiler testing, specification, 87. 
Bolts, strain on, rule, 99. 

Socket, description, 103. 
Bolt, plumber's copper pointed, 308. 
Bones, broken, treatment of, 318. 
Borer, tap, plumber's, 308. 
Box coil, description, 257. 
Brace, difference between, and stay, 
103. 

Head to head, description, 103. 

Crow foot, 103. 
Braces, shop names for, 103. 

Table for calculations, 107-109. 

T; 3 of diameters, 103. 

Inspector's rules, 102. 

Specification for, 86. 

" Points " relating to, 104. 
Bracing of steam boilers, 96. 
Bracket, valve, description, 273. 
Brass, conducting power of, 213. 
Brick, furnace, 237. 
Brine valve, description, 277. 
Broken bones, treatment of, 318. 
Burns and scalds, treatment of, 313. 
Burn mixture, 315. 
Busliing, description, 274. 
Butt joint, illustration. 
Calculations relating to stearn. heat- 
ing, 263. 
Relating to pumps, 23. 

Relating to safety valves, 191. 
C^aUpersi use of, 2^. 



Cape chisel, 307, 281. 
Carbon, description of, 229. 
Carbonate, definition, 136. 

Of magnesia, definition, 138. 

Of lime, at what temperature depos- 
ited, 148. 
Carbonic acid, in water how dectec- 
ted, 153-154. 

Specific heat of, 215. 
Carbonic acid gas, description of, 

230. 
Carbonic oxide, description of, 231. 

Specific heat of, 215. 
Carbonizatian, method of, 15. 
Care and management of the steam 

boiler, 24, 
Care of steam fittings, 268. 
Care of Avater tube boilers, 70. 
Castings, for boiler, specification, 86. 
Caulking, descriplion, 94. 
Caulking tools, plumber's, 308. 
Certificates of Inspection, issuing 

of, 131. 
Cliain riveting, example, 93. 
Chapter of " Don'ts," 44-47. 
Charcoal, description, 15. 

Specific heat c: . 314. 
Charcoal Iron, description, 88. 
Check valve, description, 273. 
Chemical terms relating to feed 

water, 136. 
Chemistry, definition, 136. 
Chemistry of the furnace, 226. 
Chief engineers, classification of, 

310. 
Chimney draught, 296. 
Chisel, cold, 307. 

Cape, 307. 

Round nose, 307. 

Half round nose, 307. 

Wood, 307. 

Diamond nose, 307. 

Gasket, 308. 
Chloride, definition, 137. 
Chlorides, how indicated in water, 

157. 
C. H. No. 1 F, 88. 
C. H. No. 1 FB, 88. 
Circle brick, 237. 
Circulation, water, 294. 
Cisterns, capacity of, 202. 
Clamp, boiler, description and cut, 123. 
Classification of marine engi- 
neers, 310. 
Cleaners, mechanical boiler, descrip- 
I tion, 159-160. 

(Cleaning out boilers under firing,0i. 
CqiiI t^r, 4ow best fired* 3Q. 



Index. 



^ A A 



CoaU 13. 

What it consists of, 13. 

Common proportions, 13. 

Introduction of air in burning, 13. 

Bituminous, how it burns, 16. 

Anthracite, how it burns, 16. 

Comparative evaporation, 18. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

Storing and handling of, 225. 
Cocks, description, 270. 

Valve, description, 273. 

Gauge, description, 170. 

Bib, description, 273. 

Three way, description, 273. 

Four way, description, 273. 
Coil) box, description, 257. 

ripe, description, 257. 
Coke, description, 15. 

Comparative evaporation, 18. 

Ratio between heating and grate 
surface, 28. 

How best fired, 28. 

Specific heat of, 314. 
Cold cliisel, 307. 
Cold sliortj definition, 121. 
Columns, glass water gauge, 177. 
Combustible parts of coal, 16. 
Combustion, operation on materials, 
16. 

Chamber, 238. 

Chambers of marine boilers, 63. 
Compasses, use of, 23. 
Compass saw, 308. 
Compound, boiler, composition, 151-2. 

For locomotive boilers, 149. 
CNo. 1, iron, 88, 
Condenser, surface description, 65. 

Operation of, 66. 
Conducting powder of various sub- 
stances, 213. 
Conical head of rivets, description, 

113. 
Construction of boilers, description, 
89. 

And drawing rivet heads, 113. 
Contraction of area, definition, 121. 
Conveyors, screw, 20. 
Copper, conducting power of, 213. 

Radiating power of, 213. 

Specific heat of, 214. 
Cornish boiler, description of, 54. 

Defects of, 54. 
Corrosion of steam boilers, 126, 143, 

144. 
Coverings for pipes and boilers, 375. 
Coupling, description, 374. 

For pipe, 250. 
Cracks in boilers, how to repair, 133. 



Cross T, description, 374. 

Crowfoot brace, 103. 

Cup head of rivets, description, 113 

Cutaway front, description, 10.5-167. 

Cuts and Avounds, treatment of, 316. 

Cylinder boiler, description, 52. 
Defects of, 53. 

Dampers and doors to the furnace, 39. 

Oamper regulators, description, 
185. 

Danger, points, in steam boiler, 135. 

Dart, description and cut, 19. 

Dead end of pipe, 284. 

Dead plate, description, 180, 337. 

Dead steam, description, 383. 

Dedication, 5. 

Defects, table of, 125. 

Defects and necessary repairs to boil- 
ers, 123. 

Definition of Terms, 131. 

Designing boilers, relating to 
stayed surfaces, 99. 

Device for using kerosene oil, 158. 

Diamond nose chisel, 307. 

Directions before lighting the fire, 25 
For firing with various fuels, 27. 

Disc for boiler makers, 281. 

"•Don'ts," a chapter of, 44-47. 

Doors, furnace, description, 168-170. 

Double beat valve, description, 373. 
Also see Fig. 158. 

Double seat valve, description, 373. 

Drain, the steam, description, 81. 

Drainage and piping, description 
and illustration, 399. 

Drain cock, description, 181. 

Draughts, at time of lighting the 
fire, 36. 
Of chimney, 396. 
Regulating the draught, 41. 

Drawings of rivet heads, 113. 

Drum, mud, description, 179. 

Dry steam, description, 383. 

Ductile, definition, 121. 

Dudgeon expanders, description, 
281. 

Duties of the flreman, 27. 

Duty of boiler, specification, 87. 

Dust (coal), firing of, 40. 

Economizer, fuel, description, 185w 

Elasticity, definition, 121. 

Elastic limit, definition, 121, 

Elbow, description, 274. 

Element, definition, 136. 

Ell, description, 274. 

Elongation of steel plate, 90i 
Definition, 121. 

Ether, specific heat of, 314. 



324 



Index. 



Eni^ineer's questions, 133. 



Examinations, "points," 133-133. 

Tests for impurities in water, 153. 
Evans, Robt., 11. 
£xanilnatioii of engineers, 133. 



Exbaiist steam heating, 267. 

Expanders (dudgeon), 281, 
Expansion (linear), of steam pipe, 

270. 
Explosions, boiler, 286. 

Of steam pipe, 287. 
Factory rules to prevent accident, 

293. 
Fatigued, definition, 121. 
Feed water, analysis of, 139-140. 

Engineer's tests, 153. 

A precipitator for sea water, 146. 

Examples of analysis, 140-141. 

Preliminary precipitation, 144. 

Description, 196. 

Heaters, "• points relating to, 201. 

Heaters, table of savings, 200. 

Purifier, description, 185. 
fire, thickness of, 40. 

What to do in case of, 40. 
Fire box iron, description, 88. 
Fire brick arcli in locomotive, 35. 
Fire clay, conducting power of, 213. 
Fire door, 237. 
Fire irons, 21. 

Firemen, advantages of trained, 24. 
Fire pails, use of, 21. 
Firing, trick of, 24. 

Boilers newly set, 28. 

With straw, description, 31. 

Duties of the fireman, 27. 

Ocean steamer, description, 32. 

Improper method, 27. 

Proper method, 26. 

With oil, description, 32. 

With coal tar, description, 30. 

Of twenty horse power, description, 
30. 

Sixteen steam boilers, description, 
29. 

With shavings, 33. 

With coke, directions, 28. 

Of steam boilers, 24. 

Under a boiler, gases and solids pro- 
duced, 16. 

With saw dust, 33. 

A. new plant, 37. 

With coal dust and screenings, 40. 



Firing with tan bark, 36. 

Boilers, experiments in England, 40. 

A locomotive, 35. 
Files, use of, 21. 
Fisli trap, 205. 
Fittings of marine boilers, 63. 

For boiler, specification, 87. 
Fixtures, boiler, description, 164. 
Flame, luminous, 41. 

Of anthracite coal, 16. 
Flange iron, description, 88. 
Flange of boiler liead« proper rad- 

ius, 103. 
Flanges for pipe, 248, 
Flanges, how to be turned, etc., 85. 
Flat surfaces in boilers, how to stay, 

98. 
Flues and tubes, sweeping, 39. 
Flush front, description, 165-166. 
Foaming in boilers, 42. 
Four Avay cock, description, 273. 
Fronts, boiler, description, 165. 
Frost-bite, treatment of, 317. 
Fuel, loss of, by incrustation, 143. 
Fuel economizer, description, 186, 
Fuel-oil, 28y. 

Rules relating to, 290. 
Fuels, liquid and gas, 15. 

Table of comparative evaporative 
value, 18. 
Fullering, description, 94. 
Fulton, Robert, 11. 
Furnace, temperatufe of, 43. 

Fire, kindling of, 241. 

Chemistry of, 229, 

Dampers and doors, 39. 

Doors, description, 168-170. 

The, 237. 
Fusible plugs, description, 171, 173. 
Galloway boiler, description of, 58. 

Table of dimensions, 60. 
Gas, difference between it and a liq- 
uid, 216. 

As a fuel, 15. 

I'rom coal, comparative evapora- 
tion, 18. 

Dangers from, in idle boilers, 388. 

Amount burned in ventilating pipes, 
265. 
Gasket cliisel, 308. 
Gas pipe, illustrations of size, 243. 
Gas pliers, description, 269. 
Gate valve, description, 273. 
Generators, steam, description, 48. 
Glass, specific heat of, 214. 

Radiating power of, 213. 
Glass guages, description, 177. 
Glass ivater guage columnsi ITT. 



Index. 



325 



Olobe valve, description, 272. 
Gold, radiating power of, 213. 

Conducting power of, 213. 
Grate, the, 237. 
Grate bars, description, 173. 

How to preserve from excessive 
heat, 38. 

Shaking grates, 174. 

How kept during firing, 27. 
Grooving of steam boilers, 126. 

List of cases, 125. 
Growth of the steam boiler, 52. 
Guage, steam, description, 181. 
Guage cocks, description, 176. 
Gaages, glass, description, 177. 
Guages, pressure i-ecording, descrip- 
tion, 233. 
Gusset stays, description, 100, 103. 
Hammer, water, description, 283. 

Pene, 306. 
Hammer test of rivets, 95. 
Hand-liole plates, description, 81. 
Hanger for pipes, 308. 
Hazards of fuel-oil, 289. 

Of the boiler room, 285. 
Heads of rivets, cup, conical, pan 

heads, 113. 
Head to liead brace, description, 103. 
Heat, laws of, 212. 

Unit of, 214. 

Specific, 214. 

How it becomes effective, 13. 
Heaters, feed water, description, 196. 
Heating, steam and hot water, 251. 

By exhaust steam, 267. 
Heat proof paints, 232. 
Heat stroke, treatment of, 315. 
High pressure steam, 283. 
Hinged valves, description, 272. 
Hoes, use of, 21. 
Homogeneous, definition, 121. 
Horizontal tubular boiler, de- 
scription, 79. 

Parts of, 81. 

Table of sizes, 77. 
Horse power, rule for estimating, 
235. 

As applied to boilers, 234. 
Hose, rubber, use of, 21. 
Hot short, definition, 122. 
Howr to carry injured persons, 319. 
Hoiv to prepare for Inspection of 

steam boilers, 130. 
Hydrogen, specific heat of, 215. 

Description of, 230. 
Hydraulic test, 131. 
Ice, radiating power of, 213, 

Specific heat of, 214. 



Improper method of firing, cuts 

and description, 27. 
Incrustation of steam boilers, 143- 
144. 

Example of, 142. 

And scale, list of cases, 125. 

Table showing quantity collecting, 
103. 

Of boilers, " points " relation to, 149- 
152. 
Individuality of each steam boiler, 

25. 
Injector, description, 206. 
Injured persons, how to carry, 319, 

320. 
Inspection of steam boilers, 129. 

How to make ready for, 129-130. 
Inspector's questions to applicant, 

128. 
Inspector's rules relating to braces 

102. 
Interceptor, steam, description, 183. 
Introduction, 10. 
Iron, T, description of, 103. 

(Hammered), melting point, 42. 

(Wrought), melting point, 42. 

Fire box, description, 88. 

Charcoal iron, description, 88. 

(Wrought), conducting power of, 213 

Polished, radiating power of, 213. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

Melting point, 43. 

Flange, description, 88. 

Cast, conducting power of, 213. 
Irons, fire, 21. 
Issuing certificates of inspection^ 

131. 
Jackscrew^s, description, 281. 
Jam brick, 237. 
Joints, putty, how to make, 303. 
Joints of lead pipe, 300. 
Joints of pipes, 248. 
Kerosene oil in boilers, " points **o£, 

156-7. 
Kindling a furnace fire, 241. 
L, description, 274. 
liace cutters, use of, 21. 
Ladders, use of, 21. 
Ladle, 306. 

Lamp black, radiating power of, 213L 
Lancashire boiler, description, 55, 

Defects of, 55. 
Language of steam boilers, 39. 
Lanterns, use of, 21. 
Lap joint, illustration, 115. 
Laws of heat, 212. 
Lazy bar, description, 30. 
Lead, 299. 



S26 



Index, 



liead, advantages iu use of, 399. 

Melting point, 42. 

Conducting power of, 313. 

Wrought, radiating power of, 213. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

Polished, radiating power of, 213. 
liead pipe, how to make putty joints, 
304. 

Table of sizes and weights, 305. 

How to bend, 304. 
I^ead pipe joints, 300. 
Lever, length, rule, 193. 
Lifting valves, description, 273. 
Lime, definition, 138. 
Liquid, difference between it and a 

gas, 216. 
Litmus paper, definition, 153. 
Live steam, description, 383. 
Locknut, description, 374. 
Locomotive, firing of, 35. 

"Boiler compound, 149. 

Or charging shovel, description, 19, 
Locomotive boilers, description,73. 

How to rivet, 115. 
Locomotive portable boiler/ lescrip- 

tion, 80. 
Looking glass, 307. 
Loop (steam), description of, 378-.380i 
Low pressure steam, 283. 
LugS) specification of, 86. 
£iuminous flame, 41. 
magnesia, definition, 138. 

At what temperature deposited, 148. 

Carbonp*- "if, definition, 138. 
Malleable, definition, 121. 
raanhole cover, description, 81. 
I?£an1iole plates, specification, 86. 
marine boilers, description of, 60, 

How to rivet, 115. 

Fittings for, 63. 

Table of dimensions, 63. 

Super heaters, 64. 

Use of zinc in, 162. 

Blast pipe for, 63. 

Uptakes, 64. 

Parts which first give way, 112. 

Incrustation and scaling of, 146-147. 
Iflarine engineers, classification of, 
310. 

Rules relating to, 309. 
marks on boiler plates, 88. 
marble, conducting power of, 213. 
materials, 12, 13. 
meckanical scraprrs, 187. 
mechanical stokers, 134-135. 
mercury, specific heat of, 214. 

Radiating power of, 213. 
TVeterS) water, description, 303. 



moisture in wood, 14. 
moutli piece, furnace, 336. 
mud drum, description, 179. 
Newly set boilers, how fired, 28. 
N ickel steel boiler plates, description, 

91. 
Nipple, description, 374. 
Nitric acid, boiling point of, 37. 
Nitrogen, specific heat of, 215. 

Description of, 230. 
Non-conductors, 276. 
Noiseless water beater, 313, 
Ocean steamer, how to fire, 33. 
Oil, fuel, 289. 

Kerosene, in boilers, "points" of, 
156-157. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

Firing with, 33. 
Ore barrow, use of, 30. 
Organic matter in water, how indi- 
cated, 154. 
Ornamental paints, 333. 
Overhanging front, description, 

165-167. 
Overhead system of heating, 356. 
Oxide, definition, 136. 

Of iron, how best treated, 148. 
Oxygen, description of, 339. 

Specific heat of, 315. 

United with coal, 17. 
Paints, heat proof, 333. 
Palm stays, description, 100. 
Pan head of rivets, description, 113. 
Patch-screw, description and cut 

123. 
Peat, description, 14. 

Analysis of, 13. 

Charcoal, description, 15. 

Comparative evaporation, 18, 
Pene hammer, 306. 
Petroleum, as a fuel, 15. 

Oil, comparative evaporation, 18, 

In boilers, use of, 155. 
Philadelphia Water Works ex 
ample of gain in good firemen, 35 
Pipes, table of surfaces and capaci- 
ties, 246. 

Joints of, 248. 

How to weld, 264. 

Used for ice machinery, 263. 

Table of " data " relative to, 247. 
Pipes and piping, description, 344. 
Pipe coil, description, 257. 
Pipe couplings, 250. 
Pipe cutter, description and cut, 36ft 
Pipe hanger, 308. 
Pipe, gas, illustration of size, 343. 
Pipe tongs, description, 269. 



Index, 



327 



Pipe union, description, 274. 

Piping, dead end, 384. 

Piping and drainage, description 

and illustration, 299. 
Pitting of steam boilers, 126. 
Planer, (power), for boiler makers, 

281. 
Plate, dead, description, 180. 

Quality of steel, 90. 
Plates, baffle, de;scription, 180. 

Burned and blistered, list, 125. 

For boilers, table of tbicknesses, 113. 
Pliers, gas, description, 269. 
Plug, description, 274. 
Plugs, fusible, description, 171, 172. 
Plumb-bob, description, 306. 
Plumber's solder, bow to make, 305. 
Plumber's tools, description, 306- 
309. 

Solder, rule for making, 305. 
Plumber's wipe joint, 298. 
Plumbing, description and cuts, 298. 

What engineers should know, 298. 
*' Points " relating to firing, 37. 

Relating to boiler braces, 104. 

Of danger in steam boiler, 125. 

Relating to grate bars, 175. 

Relating to water gauge cocks, 176. 

Relating to glass gaugps, 177. 

Relating to the steam gauge, 182. 

Relating to safety valves, 194. 

Relating to feed water heaters, 201. 

Relating to water meters, 204. 

Relating to injectors, 209. 

Relating to pumps, 218-221. 

Relating to boiler setting, 239-241. 

Relating to steam heating, 254. 

Relating to chimneys and draught, 
297. 
Poker, description and cuts, 19. 
Portable boiler, locomotive, descrip- 
tion, 80. 

Car track, use of, 20. 
Potter, Humphry, inventor of 

valve motion, 270. 
Poultices, how to make, 319. 
Power planer for boiler makers, 281. 
Power punch for boiler makers, 281. 
Precipitation of impurities in feed 

water, 144. 
Preface, 7. 
Preparation for firing steam boilers, 

24. 
Pressure gauges, list of defective 
cases, 123. 

Regulator valve, 274. 
Pressure of safety valve, rule, 193. 
Principles relating to water, ^, 



Proper method of firing, cut and 

description, 21. 
Punch for boiler makers, 281. 
Pump, description, 215. 

Classification, 217. 

Parts of, illustration, 218. 

Double acting, 218. 

Direct pressure, 216. 

Calculations relating to, 222. 

Strainer for, description, 223. 

Points relating to, 218-221. 
Putty joints, how to make, 303. 
Questions of applicant for marine 
license, 127. 

Asked by examining engineers, 309. 

Of proprietor, relating to steam, 
boiler, 127. 
Radiant rays of heat, " point," 38. 
Radiating power of various sub- 
stances, 213. 
Radiation of heat, law relating to, 

39. 
Railroad barrow, use of, 20. 
Ram, water, 284. 

Ratio of grate to heating surface, 175. 
Re-agent, definition, 136. 
Reamer, plumber's, 306. 
Recording pressure gauges, de- 
scription, 233. 
Reducing coupling, description, 274. 
Regulating the draught, 41. 
Regulations relating to marine engi- 
neers, 309. 
Regulators, damper, description, 185, 
Relief valve, description, 272. 
Repairing leaky tubes, 126. 
Repairs to boilers, " points " on, 124-ft. 
Riveting, modes of, 93. 

Specification for, 86. 

Description, 91. 

Double, description, 91. 

Chain, example, 93. 

Zig-zag, example, 93. 

Treble, example, 93. 

Unequal pitches, example, 93. 

Example of riveting boiler plates, 
114-116. 

Hammers for boiler makers, 281. 

List of defective cases, 125. 
Rivet heads of cup, conical, pan 

heads, 113. 
Rivet heating machines, 281. 
Rivets, description, 93. 

Steel, description, 95. 

Table of diameters, 113. 
Rivet set, 307. 

Tests, 95. 
pivoted stays^ descriptloo, lOi, 



328 



Index, 



Rolls for boiler makers, 281. 
Rotary valves, description, 273. 
Round nose cblsel, 307. 
Rubber bose, use of, 21. 

Rule for estimating horse power of 
boilers, 235. 
For finding area of valve opening 

195. 
To find pressure in lbs. of column of 

water, 223. 
To find area of steam piston of 

pump, 222. 
To find quantity of water elevated, 

222. 
For finding contents of a barrel, 203. 
For reading water meters, 204. 
For making boiler and pipe cover- 
ing, 2T5-276. 
For making solder, 305. 
For finding strain on bolts, 99. 
For safe internal pressure, 117. 
For determining areas of steam 

boilers, 105. 
For calculating contents of steam 
and water in the steam boiler, 105. 
Rules, U. S., regarding safety valves, 
189. 
For safety valves, 193. 
Inspectors, relating to bracing, 102. 
Relating tc fuel oil, 290. 
i'actory, to prevent accident, 293. 
Government, to prevent accident, 

290. 
Before lighting the furnace fire, 25. 
Running of steam boilers under fire, 

24. 
Safe internal pressure, rule and 
example, 117. 
Tables, 118-120. 
Safety factor of steam boilers, 96. 
Safety valves, description, 187. 
Rules, 191, 193. 

Rule to find area of opening, 195. 
Table showing rise of valve, 195. 
List of defects, 125. 
Points relating to, 194. 
Salt, definition, 138. 
Sand-bending of lead pipe, 304. 
Saturated steam, 283. 
Saw, compass. 308. 

Plumber"- s, 307. 
Saw dust, firing with, 33. 

As a fuel, 16. 
Sea water precipitator, 145. 
Sectional steam boilers, descrip- 
tion, 71. 
Sentinel valve, description, 184. 
Separator, steam, description, 183. 



set screivs, dangers arising from, 292 
Setting of steam boilers, 236« 

Of water tube boilers, 239. 
Scalds, treatment of, 313. 
Scale deposited in marine boilers, anal- 
ysis, 146-147, 

Boiler, analysis of, 148. 
Scaling of steam boilers, "points,** 

149-153. 
Scope of tbe ivorJk, 12. 
Scoop i^bovel, cut and description,19. 
Scrapers, mechanical, 187. 
Screenings, firing of coal dust and, 

40. 
Screvr conveyors, use of^ 20. 
Screw-jacks, use of, 21. 
Screws stays, description, 301. 
Scum of boilers, how formed. 150. 
Scumming apparatus, descrip- 
tion, 161. 
Shaking grates, description, J74. 
Sbavings, firing with, 33. 

Blowers, use of, 20. 
Shearing strength, definition, ??i. 
Shears for boiler makers, 281. 
Shell of boiler, description, 81. 
Shovels, cut and description of. 19. 
Side brackets for boilers, 240. 
Silica, definition, 137. 
Silver, radiating power of, 213. 

Conducting power of, 213. 

Melting point, 42. 
Six inch Hue, boiler, 78. 
Slice bar, description and cuts, 19. 

" Point " relating to its use, 30. 
Smoke, insensibility from, treatmem 

315. 
Snips, plumber's, 306. 
Socket bolts, description, 103. 
Soda, definition, 138. 

Proportion of, in water, 154. 

Acetate of, boiling point of, 37. 
Sodium, definition, 138. 
Solder, rule for making plumber's, 305. 
Sounds, or language of steam boilers^ 

39. 
Source of powder in the steam en- 
gine, 13. 
Specifications for 125 H. P. steaia 

boiler, 85. 
Specific heat, description, 214. 

Table, 214. 
Spectacle piece, 124. 
Spirit level, 307. 

Stay bolts, hollow, description, 103. 
Staying of flat surfaces, 98. 
Stays and braces, list of defectiv** 
cases, 1?5. 



Index, 



329 



stays, gusset, description, 100. 

Of marine boilers, 75. 

Of locomotive boilers, 75. 

" Points " relating to boiler stays, 
104. 

Palm, description, 100. 

8crev/ed, description, 101, 

And brace, difference, 103. 

Table for calculations, 107-109. 
Steam, description, 282. 

Specific beat of, 215. 

Dry, 282. 

Dead, 282. 

Live, 282. 

Saturated, 283. 

Wet, 283. 

Higb pressure, 283. 

Low pressure, 283. 

Superlieatcd, 283. 

Specific gravity of, 283. 

Total heat of, 283. 
Steam and Iiot Avater lieatiiig,251. 
Steam boiler, growtli of the, 52. 

Water tube, 07. 

Sectional, description of, 71. 

Triple draught, 81-82. 

Six inch flue, 78. 

Two flue, 78. 
Steam boilers, locomotive, 72. 

Idle, dangers of, 288. 

Inspector's rules relating to bracing 
of, 102. 

Use of petroleum in, 155. 

Effect of sugar on, 150. 

Corrosion and incrustation, 142. 

Scaling of, "points," 149-152. 

Effect of bark on, 151. 

Bracing, 90. 

Specification for 125 H. P., 85. 
Steam drum or dome, description, 81. 
Steam fitter's vise, 269. 
Steam fittiiii2;s, care, 268. 

Description, 274. 
Steam gauge, description, 181. 
Steam generators, 48. 
Steam heating by exhaust, 267. 

How much space 1 H. P. will heat, 
262. 
Steam loop, note relating to, 295. 

Description, 278-280. 
Steam pipe, linear expansion of, 276. 
Steam pipe explosions, 287. 
Steam pump, 215. 
St«'am separator, description, 183. 
Steam space of boilers, rule and 

example, 105. 
Steam \%'Iiistle, description, 180. 
Steel rivets, description, 95. 



Steel, boiler, description, 90. 

Melting point, 42. 

Speciflc heat of, 214. 
Steel iilates, nickel steel, descrip- 
tion, 91. 

Quality and thickness in, 85. 

Quality of, 90. 
Stephenson, George, 11. 
Stock and dies, use of, 21. 
Stolier, mecJianical, l:-{4. 
Storing coal, 225. 

Straightway valve, description, 273. 
Strainer, for pump, description, 223. 
Strain on bolts, rule and example, 

99. 
StraAv, how best fired, 31. 

Comp sition of, as fuel, 15. 
Sugar, effect of, on steam boilers, 150. 
Sulphates, how indicated, 154. 

Definition, 137. 
Sulphate of lime, at what tempera- 
ture deposited, 148. 
Sulphur, description of, 230. 
Sulphuric acid, boiling point of, 37. 
Sunstroke, treatment of, 315. 
Superheated steam, 283. 
Superheater of marine boiler, 64. 
Surface blow off, description, 101. 
Surface condenser, description, 65. 
Swing valve, description, 273. 
Syphon, dangers from, in boilers, 288. 
T, description, 274. 
T irons, description and use, 103. 

Dimensions and shape, 104. 
Table of evaporation, 18. 

Melting points of metals, 42. 

Temperature, judged by color, 42. 

Of dimensions, Galloway boiler, 60. 

Of marine boilers, 62. 

Diameter of braces, 103. 

For calculating the number of stays, 
107-109. 

Of dimensions of boiler tubes, 110. 

Holding power of boiler tubes. 111. 

Of diameter of rivets and thickness 
of plate, 113. 

Of safewinternal pressure, 118-120. 

Of defects found in steam boilers, 
125. 

Showing loss at different thickness- 
es by corrosion, 143. 

Showing sediment collecting in 
boilers, 163. 

Showing rise of safety valve, 195. 

Of savings from use of feed water, 
200. 

Capacity of cisterns, 202. 

Of specific heat, 214. 



330 



Index. 



Table of conducting power of various 
substances, 213. 
Of radiating power of various sub- 
stances, 213. 
Weigbt of cubic foot of water, 224. 
Weight and capacity of gallons of 

water, 225. 
Comparative quantity of water 

which can be evaporated, 231. 
Surfaces and capacities of pipes, 246. 
Of data relating to pipes, 247. 
Bursting pressure of tubes, 264. 
Of weights of round and plate iron, 

309, 311. 
Conducting power of various sub- 
stances, 275. 
Relative value of non-conductors, 

276. 
Weights of lead pipe, 305. 
Xan, description, 15. 
Tan bark, comparative evaporation, 
18. 
Firing with, 36. 
Tanks for fuel oil, how to construct, 

290. 
Tan-liqnor, unsaf^use of,li» bo-le«, 

185. 
Tap borer, plumber's, 306, 
Taps and dies, description, i^9. 
Tee, description, 274. 
Temperature of a furnace, 42. 
Tensile strengtli of steel plate, 90. 

Of boilers, 121. 
Test, the hydraulic, 131. 
Testing-boiler, specification, 87. 
Testing boilers under steam press- 
ure, 287. 
Test pieces, description and illustra- 
tion, 105, 112. 
Tests for impurities in water, 153. 
Tests of steel rivets, 95. 
Thimbles, specification for, ^. 
Tliree Avay cock, description, 273. 
Tkrottle valve, description, 273. 
Tin, melting point, 42. 

Conducting power of, 213. 
Specific heat of, 214. 
Radiating power of, 213. 
Tissue paper, radiating power of, 213. 
Tongs for boiler makers, 281. 
Tool box, description, 22. 
Tools, plumber's, description, 306-30e. 
Handy for the fire-room, 21. 
Used in steam fitting, 269. 
Boiler maker's, 281. 
Plumber's caulking, 308. 
Torch, 307. 
Total heat t>f steam, 283. 



Tough, definition, 121. 

Trained oi untrained firemen, diflPer 

ence, 24. 
Trap, fish, 205. 

Treble riveting, example, 93. 
Triple draught tubular boiler, 83. 
Trevethick, Richard, frontispiece 
Tube expanders, 28i. 
Tubes, how to weld, 264. 

Table of bursting and collapsing 
pressures, 264. 

Boiler, illustration of size, 245. 

Experiments in holding power, 111. 

Table of holding power. 111. 

Boiler, table of dimensions, 110. 

Leaky, how to repair, 126. 
Tubes and flues, sweeping, 39. 
Tube sheets, description, 81. 
Turn-pin, description, 806. 
Two flue steam boiler, 78. 
Umbria, steamer, firing boilers, 32. 
Unequal riveting, example, 93. 
Union, description, 274. 
Unit of chimney measurements, 297. 
Upright steam boilers, descrij^ 

tion, 51. 
Uptakes of marine boiler, 64. 
Valve, gate, 273. 

Globe, description, 272. 

Brine, description, 273. 

Pop, description, 188. 

Angle, description, 273. 

Check, description, 273. 

Sentinel, description, 184. 

Pressure regulator, 274. 

Rotary, description, 273. 

Straightway, description, 273, 

Throttle, description, 273r 

Ball, description, 273. 

Chamber, description, 272. 

Double beat and double seat, 27^ 

Swing, description, 273. 
Valve bracket, description, 273. 
Valve cock, description, 272. 
Valve coupling, description, 272. 
Valves, description, 271. 

Safety, description, 187. 

Of what material made, 274. 
Valves, hinged, description, 272. 

Relief, description, 272. 

Back pressure, description, 273. 

Lifting, description, 274. 
Valves and cocks, description, 271, 
Valve-seat, description. 272. 
Vaults for fuel oil, how to constrac4 

289. 
Ventilation, 265. 
Vise, steamfitter's, 368. 



Index, 



33t 



Vises, use of, 21. 
M^ater, ho^v formed, 143. 

Principles relating to, 223. 

Principle temperatures of, 224. 

Point of maximum density, 224. 

The boiling jioiut, 224. 

The standard temperature, 224. 

Specitie heat of, 214. 

Boiling point of pure, 37. 

Radiating power of, 213. 

Conducting power of, 213. 

Freezing point, 224. 
IVater, (sea,) precipitator for, 145. 

Boiling point of salt, 37. 
Water bending of lead pipe, ;W. 
\*'atcr circulation, 21>4. 
W^ater grate bars, description, 17o. 

Gauge cocks, descrijition, 17G. 
ft ater lianinier, 283. 
V% ater meters, rule for reading, '^\ 

Description, 2tl3. 
f\'«ter ram, 2S4. 

Wiiter space of boilers, rule and ex- 
ample, ll^o. 
Water la^le xn locomotive, 35. 
^ater ti&b^ fc.\.x\iu boiler, description, 

67. 
^W»i*er liPKter, noiseless. 313. 



"Water tube steam, boiler, setting of, 

231\ 
Watt, James, 6. 

"Weiglkt of different standanl gallon? 
of water, 225. 

Of a column of air, 17. 
Weldable, definition, 121. 
"Welding boiler and other tubes, 2»H. 
"Wet steam, 28;i. 
"Wlieelbarrow, use of, 20. 
"Wliistle, steam, description, 18(1. 
"Wliitewasli, description, 232. 
AVI pe joint, how to make, 30(). 

Plumber's, 2118. 
Wood, comparative evaporation, 18. 

Specific heat of, 214. 

As a combustible, 14. 

"Hint as to drying," 14. 
"Wood cliarcoal, comparative ©vap 

oration, 18. 
AVood cbisel, 307. 
"Wounds, treatment of, 310. 
"Writing paper, radiating p<5wer of, 

213. 
Zig-zag riveting, example, 93. 
Zinc, conducting p wer of, 21X 

Melting point, 42. 

Effect on corrosion of boilers, 15C 

Use in marine boilers, lfi2. 

Specific heat of, 214. 





o , .FOR. . » 

ENGINEERS, 
^^}s£ Firemen, 

Electricians, 
Superintendents 

and all 

Steam Users. 

SEND ALL ORDERS TO 

TMEO. AUDEL 6t CO., 

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{With Questioyis and Answers.) 
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THE KEY to the contents of the Hawkins Books is to be 
fiULci in the carefully arranged Index in the end pages of each 
\ omtiit-. 1 he^e give access to any subject needed to be quick- 
ly coi ^ulttd Example : under " Accidents ' in the " Instruc- 
tions f-r the Boiler Room " are to be found a long list of reme- 
dits for burns, cuts, wounds, etc. 



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PERSONAL. 



For wise men the joys of reading are life's crowning pleas- 
ures. Books are our universities, where souls are the professors. 
Books arethe looms that weave rapidly man's inner garments. 
Books are t he levelers— not by lowering the great, but by lifting 
upthesm?ll. 

Newell Dwight Hillis in ''A Man's Value to Society.'''' 



Professor Hawkins has long been most favor- 
ably known as a practical and helpful writer upon 
Steam and Electrical Engineering, and now, as 
the publishers of his works, we take pleasure in 
handing you this little " booklet" describing the 
five books which comprise his scientific works 
issued up to the present time all of which are 
thoroughly up-to-date. 

We recommend them : 

To all who come in contact in any way 
with Steam or Electricity in any of its 
very numerous industrial departments. 

To anyone looking for advancement. 

3. As books of standard reference on the 
subjects treated upon. 

Soliciting your kind patronage we are re- 
spectfully yours, 



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A^. Y. City, 63 5th Ave. 



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-7 



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New 
Catechism 

of 
Electricity. 

A 

Practical 

Treatise. 

Price, $2.00. 



This is a book of 550 pp. , full of up-to-date 
information. 300 illustrations. Handsomely 
bound in red leather, pocket-book form, size 4^ 
X 6^, with titles and edges in gold. 

This book has been issued in response to a 
real demand for a plain and practical treatise on 
the care and management of electrical plants and 
apparatus — a book to aid the average man, rather 
than the inventor or experimenter in this all- 
alive matter. 

Hence this work will be found to be most 
complete in this particular direction, containing 
all the (book) information necessary for an ix- 
perienced man to take charge of a dymiiio or 
plant of any size. 

So important is the subject matter of this 
admirable work that there is only one time to or- 
der it and that is NOW, 



T 



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CONTENTS. 



The Dynamo ; Conductors and Non- Conduc- 
tors ; Symbols, abbreviations and definitions re- 
lating to electricity ; Parts of the Dynamo ; The 
Motor ; The Care and Management of the Dyna- 
mo and Motor. 

Electric Lighting ; Wiring ; The rules and 
requirements of the National Board of Under- 
writers in full ; Electrical Measurements. 

The Electric Railway ; Eine Work ; Instruc- 
tion and Cautions for Einemen and the Dynamo 
Room ; Storage Batteries; Care and Management 
of the Street Car Motor ; Electro Plating. 

The Telephone and Telegraph; The Electric 
Elevator ; Accidents and Emergencies, etc., etc. 

The full one-third part of the whole work 
has been devoted to the explanation and illustra- 
tions of the dynamo, and particular directions 
relating to its care and management ;— all the 
directions are given in the simplest and most 
kindly way to assist rather than confuse the 
learner. The names of the various parts of the 
machine are also given with pictorial illustra- 
tions of the same. 

In the Catechism no less than 25 full page 
illustrations have been given of the various dy- 
namo machines made in different parts of the 
country, and an equal number of part pap-e iV is- 
trations. 



^ 



Bngi= 

neers 

Exami= 

nations 

with 

Ques= 

tions 

and 

An= 

swers. 

Price 

$2.00, 



The volume is bound (being designed for constant 
and ready reference ) in substantial red leather with titles 
and edges in gold; it consists of between 200 and 300 
pages, printed on heavy, fine surface paper; size 5''''x7>^^''; 
weight I }4, lbs. 

This book is a most important aid to all engineers, 
and is undoubtedly the most helpful ever issued relating 
to a safe and sure preparation for examination. 

It presents in a condensed form the most approved 
practice in the care and management of Steam Boilers, 
Engines, Pumps, Electrical and Refrigerating Machines. 

The following is a complete list of its contents: 




TESTIMONIAL.-FRED. D. STONE, "Inclosed find 
$2.00 for Hawkins' New Catechism of Electricity. I have 
HAWKINS' AIDS TO ENGINEERS EXAMINATIONS. 
It is the best on the subject. I owe my success in securing a 
license to it. 



^ 



} 



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N 



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Contents. 



1. This book embraces information not else 
where obtainable. 

2. It tells exactly what an engineer will have to 
go through in getting a license, with much kindly 
and helpful advice to the applicant for a license. 

3. It contains the annual report of the superin- 
tendents of "Steam Boiler Inspection and Certifica- 
tion of Engineers ' for the cities of New York and 
Brooklyn. 

4. It contains various rules, regulations and laws 
of cities for the examination of boilers and the 
licensing of engineers. 

5. It contains the laws and regulations of the 
U. S. for the examination and grading of all marine 
engiircers. 

6. It gives a short chapter on the "Key to Suc- 
cess " in obtaining knowledge necessary for advance- 
ment in engineering. This is very important. 

7. The book gives the underlying principles of 
steam-engineering in plain language, with sample 
questions and answers likely to be asked by the 
examiner. 

8. It gives a few plain rules of arithmetic with 
examples of how to work the problems relating to the 
safety valve, strength of boilers and horse power of 
the steam engine and steam boiler. 

9. The main subjects treated, upon which are 
given detailed information with questions and 
answers are as follows:— The Steam Boiler, Boiler 
Braces, incrustation and Scale, Firing of Steam 
Boilers, Water Circulation in Boilers, Constrviction 
and Strength of Boilers, The Steam Engine, Engine 
and Boiler Fittings, Pumps, The Injector, Electricity 
and Electric Machines, Steam Heating, Refrigera 
tion, Valve Setting, etc., etc. 



X 




Maxims 

and 

Instructions 

for the 

Boiler Room, 

Price $2.00. 



This book is uniform in binding and size 
with "Calculations for Engineers" and the "New 
Catechism of the Steam Engine" ; the size is 
6x8^ inches, i% inches thick; weight 2 lbs. ; 
and bound in green silk cloth, gilt tops and titles 
in gold; it has 331 pages with 185 diagrams or 
illustrations. 

This is of all the Hawkins books perhaps 
the most useful to the Engineer-in-charge, to the 
Fireman, to the Steam user or owner, and to the 
student of Steam Engineering 

— FOR — 

The work relates to Steam Generators, 
Pumps, Appliances, Steam Heating, Practical 
Plumbing, etc., etc. 



X 



z. 



CONTENTS. 



Fire Irons ; The firing of Steam-boilers ; 
A Chapter of "Don'ts" relating to firing; 
Steam-boiler ; the History and Growth of the 
Steam-boiler ; Upright Boiler ; the Marine Boil- 
er ; The Water-tube Boiler ; The I^ocomotive 
Boiler ; The Horizontal Tubular Boiler ; Parts 
of the Boiler; Specification for 125 H. P. Boil- 
ers ; Construction, Riveting and Bracing of 
Boilers, with many illustrations and tables for 
calculating the strength of same ; Boiler Makers' 
Tools ; Boiler Fixtures and belongings ; Plumb- 
ing; Piping; Accidents and Emergencies; In- 
dex with nearly 1,000 References, etc., etc. 



No Engineer, Fireman or Steam User can afford to 

BE WITHOUT THIS VALUABLE BOOK, AS IT CONTAINS THE PITH 
AND VITAL "points" OF ECONOMICAL AND SAFE STEA M PRO- 
DUCTION. 

The PLAN FOLLOWED IN THIS WORK IS THE SAME AS THAT 
SO GENERALLY APPROVED IN "CALCULATIONS " ; IT PROCEEDS 
FROM THE MOST SIMPLE RULES AND MAXIMS TO THE HIGHEST 
PROBLEMS ; IT IS BOTH A BOOK OF INSTRUCTION AND REFER- 
ENCE. The CAREFULLY-PREPARED InDEX CONTAINS NEARLY 
ONE THOUSAND REFERENCES, THUS MAKING IT ALMOST A DIC- 
TIONARY OF TERMS. 



X 



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Hand Book 

of 
Calculations 

for 

Engineers. 

Price $2.00. 



THIS IS A WORK OF INSTRUCTION AND REFERKNCE 
REI<ATING TO THE STEAM ENGINE, THE STEAM BOII^ER, 
ETC., AND HAS BEEN SAID TO CONTAIN EVERY CAI.CU- 
I^ATION, RUI.E AND TABI^E NECESSARY TO BE KNOWN 
BY THE ENGINEER, FIREMAN AND STEAM USER. 

IT IS BOUND UNIFORM WITH THE "NEW CATECHISM 
OF THE STEAM ENGINE" AND THE "INSTRUCTIONS FOR 
THE BOII.ER room" (SIZE 6x8^ INCHES, WEIGHT 2 
I,BS.); IN GREEN SII.K CI,0TH; PRINTED ON HEAVY, FINE 
SURFACE PAPER ; GOI.D TITLES, GII<T TOP ; WITH 330 
PAGES AND 150 ILLUSTRATIONS. 

THE WORK COMPRISES THE EI<EMENTS OF ARITH- 
METIC, MENSURATION, GEOMETRY, MECHANICAI. PHII,- 
OSOPHY, W^ITH COPIOUS NOTES, EXPI^ANATIONS AND 
HEI^P RUIZES USEFUI, TO AN ENGINEER. 

AND FOR REFERENCE, TABI.ES OF SQUARES AND 
CUBES, SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS, CIRCUMFERENCE AND 
AREAS OF CIRCI^ES, TABI.ES OF WEIGHTS OF MKTAI^S 
AND PIPES, TABLES OF PRESSURES OF STEAM, ETC., ETC 



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CONTENTS. 



Mechanical Powers ; Natural or Mechan= 
ical Philosophy; Strength of Materials; 
Mensuration; Arithmetic; Description of Alge- 
bra and Geometry ; Tables of Weights, Meas= 
ures, Strength of Rope and Chains, Pressures 
of Water, Diameter of Pipes, etc. ; The Indi= 
cator, how to compute; The Safety Valve, 
how to figure; The Steam Boiler; The Steam 
Pump; Horse Powers, how to figure for 
engines and boilers ; Steam, what it is, etc.; 
Index and Useful Definitions, 



TESTIMONIALS. 



* * I am pleased with the work ; . it is of 
value to me. I have charge of a Harris- 
Corliss engine doing 680 H. P. at Slater's 
Cotton Mills."— Cyrus Bucklin, Pawtucket, 
R.I. * * "I think it is the best I ever 
saw, and I thank the day I saw it adver- 
tised." — Jno. C. Robinson, Adams, Mass. 
* * " The Hand Book is worth its weight 
in dollars to any engineer with common 
sense." — Jas. C. Temple, Kng., Spring- 
field, 111. 







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New 

Catechism 

of the 

Steam 

Engine. 

Price $2.00. 



A new book from cover to cover, handsomely 
bound in green silk cloth, gilt top, titles in gold; 
440 pages; 325 illustrations; size 6x8^ inches, 
i^ inches thick; weight 2 lbs. It is bound 
uniform in style and size with the " Hand Book 
of Calculations ' ' and * ' Maxims and Instructions 
for the Boiler Room. ' ' 

This book is gotten up to fill a long- felt need 
for a practical book. It gives directions for run- 
ning the various types of steam engines that are 
to-day in the market. A list of subjects which 
are fully yet concisely discussed are found on the 
next page. 



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CONTENTS. 



The subject matter of the New Catechism of the 
Steam Engine is not arranged in chapters, but ac- 
cording to the more natural order best designed to 
explain at greater or less length the different themes 
discussed. The following are the leading divisions 
of the 480 pages of the book. 



Dedication to Designers and Builders. 

Questions and Answers relating to Steam Engine. 

Foundations for Steam Engine. 

*' Parts ' ' of the Steam Engine. 
Stationary Engines. 

Corliss Engines. 

Pumping Engines. 
Locomotive Engines. 

Steam Fire Engines. 

Gas Engines. 
Hoisting Engines. 

Air Compressing Engines. 

Blowing Engines. 
** Compounding." 

Condensers. 

Marine Engines. 
Valves and Valve Setting. 

*' Lining up." 
Care and Management of the Steam Engine. 
Chapter of ^afs." 

Arithipetic of the Steam En^in?. 



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Bindings. 



Should a finer binding, than cloth, be desired of the 
"Calculations," "Boiler-Room," and "Steam Engine," 
we can supply them in elegant, full red leather bindings, 
gold titles and gilt edges — with the other two books, 
which are always bound in "leather and gold," as 
described; this binding makes the handsomest set of 
engineers' books on the market — as well as the most 
useful. 

The extra cost is one dollar per volume (on the three 
books above named) over the cost of the regular cloth 
binding which is also very choice. The leather edition is 
also sold on part payments, separately or together. 



A Few Selected 

Commendations. 

There are no better judges of the true worth of these 
books than practical engineers. The following are exam- 
ples of very many hundreds of recommendations sent 
without solicitation : — 

Jos. S. Hall, Sebo, Mont., " The books are all right and should be 
used by every engineer" ; H. Chambers, Atkinson, Neb., " The value 
of your books is beyond expression, may your good work continue"; 
C L. Wain, Chief Engineer, Kamloops, B. C, " They are books that 
should be in the hands of every engineer'"; Adolph Hahn, St. Louis, 
Mo., " I must say I am well pleased with thebooks, theyare just what 
I was looking for"; T.J. McCartney, Anaconda, Mont., " Accept my 
thanks for the condition and promptness with which you delivered the 
books to me"; T. A. Secord, Unionville, Mo., "I take pleasure in say- 
ing that Hawkins' complete works are a very valuable addition toany 
engineer's library"; Willia^n J. Lee, Machinist, U. S. Steamer /wrfz- 
ana, off Havana, Cuba, April 26, '98, "The war is on us and so you 
will know the cause of any delay in payments, the men are very much 
pleased with the books, they say your books were just what they 
wanted. Two more sets are wanted," 



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L. 



Easy Payments. 

The Hawkins' works are sold on easy part payments. 
The set (5 books) are sent upon the following terms : 
Upon the receipt of $2.00 and the promise to pay one 
dollar per month, the books will be forwarded, charges 
prepaid, to the purchaser in any part of the world; should 
one, two, or three books be desired, the payment in that 
case may be one dollar with order and the promise to pay 
the amount remaining due, one dollar per month. 

The books are delivered free upon receipt of the first 
installment payment. 

There is only one condition attached to this liberal 
offer. We require a reference as to the character and re- 
liability of the intending purchaser, but in place of this a 
statement of where employed, how long and in what 
position, will be sufficient. 

As soon as a payment is received a letter is written in 
acknowledgment, and in this letter a " safety envelope " 
will also be sent for the next installment due. 

A printed order-blank with agreement, is furnished 
upon request, but this is not necessary. A simple order 
to send the books (with reference or statement) with the 
first payment will receive prompt attention and shipment. 



The time to order these books is now, as the very pith of 
this method of payment is to avoid the waste of valuable time in 
studying them. '1 his always has to be done in advance of 
"getting a raise" or securing a new position. 

A long experience has shown the s^iisfactory workings of 
this plan of payments. It has increased theamount of the sales 
and put the advantages to be derived from the use of the books 
within the easy reach of hundreds of worthy persons. It is 
easily true that one thousand men hold advanced situations 
who owe them to these useful books. If one hundred dollars 
per year is the average increased pay for each it will show an 
added income of one hundred thousand dollars annually for 
our patrons. More than twenty-five thousand of the books 
have been sold to the date of the issue of this catalogue, each 
one of which has been a lifter (or lever) for the attentive student 
of its contents. 



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HOW TO SEND MONEY BY MAIL 

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NT. 



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